A critique of Walsh’s (1996) Modern World History
The book Modern World History written by Walsh (1996) describes a series of historical and social events that took place mostly in Europe and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) during the nineteenth century. This book is divided into four sections: the first is called the First World War; the second deals with the USSR, Germany and the USA between the wars; cooperation and conflict (1919-1945) is the third one; and international relations (1945-1990) take part of the fourth section.
In the first place, the causes of the First World War have been presented as well as a reflection on how Britain was affected by this war is revealed. Furthermore, the peace treaties after the First World War are also described. Taking into account the second section, the political and social situations in the USSR (1905-1941), in Germany (1918-1945) and in the USA (1919-1941) are explained and supported with different sources, such as pictures, cartoon comics or graphs.
The League of Nations’ successes and failures are stated in the third section called cooperation and conflict. Furthermore, the causes of the Second World War are also presented. The international relations are mentioned in the last section. Therefore, the beginnings of the Cold War and the Cold War in itself are examined. The roles of China and the Red Empire between the 1940s and the years 1989 and 1990 are also described.
In this preliminary interesting book, not only does Walsh (1996) present factual information, but also shows significant sources. For instance, maps, real pictures, cartoon comics as well as graphs are used to illustrate the book. The use of different and varied tasks is remarkable throughout this piece of writing. All in all, Modern World History (Walsh, 1996) is a useful book either for people who are studying history or for those who are interested in reading modern world history.
Reference
Walsh, B. (1996). Modern world history. London: John Murray Ltd.
miércoles, 20 de enero de 2010
A descriptive-informative annotated bibliography
A descriptive-informative annotated bibliography
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
The meanings of the words critical and incident as well as a definition of the concept of critical incident technique are provided in Flanagan’s (1954) article. A description of this technique’s backgrounds and early developments is taken into account. Five steps are included in the critical incident technique procedure: general aims, plans and specifications, collecting the data, analyzing the information, and interpreting and reporting. This technique is not considered as a flexible set of principles, but it is adapted to meet each specific situation. Lastly, according to Flanagan (1954), the critical incidents provide solutions only when they are applied to different areas: measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, among others.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 5, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
The meanings of the words critical and incident as well as a definition of the concept of critical incident technique are provided in Flanagan’s (1954) article. A description of this technique’s backgrounds and early developments is taken into account. Five steps are included in the critical incident technique procedure: general aims, plans and specifications, collecting the data, analyzing the information, and interpreting and reporting. This technique is not considered as a flexible set of principles, but it is adapted to meet each specific situation. Lastly, according to Flanagan (1954), the critical incidents provide solutions only when they are applied to different areas: measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, among others.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 5, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Useful requirements to write academically
Useful requirements to write academically
Readers will have the opportunity to analyze what is needed to write academically. Therefore, they will be able to find four aspects related to academic writing: the use of quotations, omissions, and insertions of words or letters; introductory phrases and their structure; in-text citations and their most common structures; and the use of reporting verbs (Pintos, 2008).
In the first place, omissions are used in writing to show that a particular part on the original text has been omitted. When parts of a sentence, no more than a sentence, are edited out, three full stops are used in place of the omitted part. For example, “writing should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities” (Myles, 2002, p.3).
Furthermore, if at least one paragraph is omitted, another paragraph is written, then four full stops in the following margin are added, and the other paragraph on the margin is written below. Moreover, if a whole sentence is edited out, the authors make the text and they use three full stops between brackets, such as text (…) (Pintos, 2008).
Apart from omitting words, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs in a text, these last ones could be inserted into the original quotation. Therefore, whenever a particular author’s words are quoted, it is necessary to write not only the surname and the year of publication, but also the page in which the original quotation was found (Pintos, 2008).
One example of both, quotation and insertion is the following one: “According to McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because: [L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and other do not” (Myles, 2002, p. 7).
According to Pintos (2008), there are many ways of writing introductory phrases. They can be included as In X’s (year of publication) article, X’s (year of publication) paper on … discusses, according to X (year of publication), or X (year of publication) states that… . In Myles’ (2002) article, there are some examples, such as Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze… (p. 3), Schumann (1998) argues that … (p. 7), or According to Ellis (1985), … (p. 9).
Additionally, whenever authors cite other authors’ works, they have to use in-text citations. This is done by using the reporting verbs in the past tense or the present perfect tense, with the purpose of signaling phrases described in earlier articles. If the author summarizes or paraphrases other writer’s work, it is necessary to include the author’s surname and the year of publication.
However, if the author quotes the actual words of the former one, it is necessary to include the page where it was found (Pintos, 2008). In Myles’ (2002) article, there are many examples of in-text citations: “Knowing how to write a summary or analysis in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things in English (Kern, 2000)”, “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose … (p. 354)”.
As regards the use of reporting verbs, there are many different ones in the analyzed text. These verbs are used in order not to repeat the way in-text citations are written. For instance, the verbs focus on, analyze, propose, stress, argue, point out, and mention are used in Myles’ (2002) article.
On balance, academic writing is a useful tool to express thoughts or opinions in academic contexts. However, there are some requirements that writers need to follow in order to write within those contexts. Apart from remembering the specific formal elements which lead to proficiency, the writer has to persuade the reader to analyze what was written. In short, the main purpose of writing academically could be to have a voice to be heard.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen’s University. Retrieved September, 12, 2008, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESI-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Readers will have the opportunity to analyze what is needed to write academically. Therefore, they will be able to find four aspects related to academic writing: the use of quotations, omissions, and insertions of words or letters; introductory phrases and their structure; in-text citations and their most common structures; and the use of reporting verbs (Pintos, 2008).
In the first place, omissions are used in writing to show that a particular part on the original text has been omitted. When parts of a sentence, no more than a sentence, are edited out, three full stops are used in place of the omitted part. For example, “writing should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities” (Myles, 2002, p.3).
Furthermore, if at least one paragraph is omitted, another paragraph is written, then four full stops in the following margin are added, and the other paragraph on the margin is written below. Moreover, if a whole sentence is edited out, the authors make the text and they use three full stops between brackets, such as text (…) (Pintos, 2008).
Apart from omitting words, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs in a text, these last ones could be inserted into the original quotation. Therefore, whenever a particular author’s words are quoted, it is necessary to write not only the surname and the year of publication, but also the page in which the original quotation was found (Pintos, 2008).
One example of both, quotation and insertion is the following one: “According to McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because: [L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and other do not” (Myles, 2002, p. 7).
According to Pintos (2008), there are many ways of writing introductory phrases. They can be included as In X’s (year of publication) article, X’s (year of publication) paper on … discusses, according to X (year of publication), or X (year of publication) states that… . In Myles’ (2002) article, there are some examples, such as Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze… (p. 3), Schumann (1998) argues that … (p. 7), or According to Ellis (1985), … (p. 9).
Additionally, whenever authors cite other authors’ works, they have to use in-text citations. This is done by using the reporting verbs in the past tense or the present perfect tense, with the purpose of signaling phrases described in earlier articles. If the author summarizes or paraphrases other writer’s work, it is necessary to include the author’s surname and the year of publication.
However, if the author quotes the actual words of the former one, it is necessary to include the page where it was found (Pintos, 2008). In Myles’ (2002) article, there are many examples of in-text citations: “Knowing how to write a summary or analysis in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things in English (Kern, 2000)”, “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose … (p. 354)”.
As regards the use of reporting verbs, there are many different ones in the analyzed text. These verbs are used in order not to repeat the way in-text citations are written. For instance, the verbs focus on, analyze, propose, stress, argue, point out, and mention are used in Myles’ (2002) article.
On balance, academic writing is a useful tool to express thoughts or opinions in academic contexts. However, there are some requirements that writers need to follow in order to write within those contexts. Apart from remembering the specific formal elements which lead to proficiency, the writer has to persuade the reader to analyze what was written. In short, the main purpose of writing academically could be to have a voice to be heard.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen’s University. Retrieved September, 12, 2008, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESI-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Writing academically
Writing academically
The concept of summary writing will be explained, specifically in academic contexts. Moreover, a student’s summary in reference to one of Reid’s books (1994) will be analyzed (Pintos, 2008). The summary’s introduction, body and conclusion will be taken into account, too. Above all, the readers will be able to reflect upon the summary, and they will also be able to consider other summaries.
The introductory phrase of the student’s summary is “Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The body is “However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The conclusion of the summary is “That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20).
As regards the body of the summary, it is brief, precise and quite balanced. Nonetheless, the characteristics clear and balanced would have to be explained in detail. In reference to the conclusion, the author could have separated it from the body of the summary in order to make it more effective, and he could also have restated the main ideas of the material so as to mention them in a briefer way.
The second phrase “The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience” states the purpose of academic writing (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The audience should always be taken into account. In order to connect the different, similar or just leading ideas in the summary, the author has used a certain number of connectors, such as however, in order to, not only….but also, moreover, and that is to say. As regards the body of the paper, it would have been better if the author had clarified what he meant by clear and balanced, or he could have informed what way people could produce a summary which is clear and balanced.
In order to present some examples of summarizing, three paragraphs have been taken into account (Pintos, 2008). According to Pintos (2008), “Academic writing is identified with a number of awkward specific formal elements such as proficiency in language use, style, register, and genre(s) (…)” (p. 6). In order to write in academic contexts, we should achieve proficiency in language use and produce engaging pieces of writing.
Furthermore, Pintos (2008) describes academic writing as “one of the big steps towards advanced literacy; writing in academic settings can be an excellent tool to sharpen thinking skills and to discover new ideas” (p. 7). In order to achieve advanced literacy, learners should be taught to write academically.
Finally, Pintos (2008) concludes that “Academic writing, critical consciousness, and the skills beyond them are not acquired naturally but need to be gained through exemplification, instruction, practice, experience and purpose (…)” (p. 9). Academic writing is acquired naturally, but through learning to write in a meaningful manner.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the use of summaries while writing in academic or non academic contexts. Summarizing is a useful tool because it persuades the readers to read the original source, informs the audience, or just makes the main ideas of a paper more precise and briefer.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
The concept of summary writing will be explained, specifically in academic contexts. Moreover, a student’s summary in reference to one of Reid’s books (1994) will be analyzed (Pintos, 2008). The summary’s introduction, body and conclusion will be taken into account, too. Above all, the readers will be able to reflect upon the summary, and they will also be able to consider other summaries.
The introductory phrase of the student’s summary is “Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The body is “However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The conclusion of the summary is “That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20).
As regards the body of the summary, it is brief, precise and quite balanced. Nonetheless, the characteristics clear and balanced would have to be explained in detail. In reference to the conclusion, the author could have separated it from the body of the summary in order to make it more effective, and he could also have restated the main ideas of the material so as to mention them in a briefer way.
The second phrase “The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience” states the purpose of academic writing (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The audience should always be taken into account. In order to connect the different, similar or just leading ideas in the summary, the author has used a certain number of connectors, such as however, in order to, not only….but also, moreover, and that is to say. As regards the body of the paper, it would have been better if the author had clarified what he meant by clear and balanced, or he could have informed what way people could produce a summary which is clear and balanced.
In order to present some examples of summarizing, three paragraphs have been taken into account (Pintos, 2008). According to Pintos (2008), “Academic writing is identified with a number of awkward specific formal elements such as proficiency in language use, style, register, and genre(s) (…)” (p. 6). In order to write in academic contexts, we should achieve proficiency in language use and produce engaging pieces of writing.
Furthermore, Pintos (2008) describes academic writing as “one of the big steps towards advanced literacy; writing in academic settings can be an excellent tool to sharpen thinking skills and to discover new ideas” (p. 7). In order to achieve advanced literacy, learners should be taught to write academically.
Finally, Pintos (2008) concludes that “Academic writing, critical consciousness, and the skills beyond them are not acquired naturally but need to be gained through exemplification, instruction, practice, experience and purpose (…)” (p. 9). Academic writing is acquired naturally, but through learning to write in a meaningful manner.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the use of summaries while writing in academic or non academic contexts. Summarizing is a useful tool because it persuades the readers to read the original source, informs the audience, or just makes the main ideas of a paper more precise and briefer.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Steve Jobs’ commencement speech
Steve Jobs’ commencement speech
This summary was done in reference to Steve Jobs’speech (2005) to a group of recent graduates. Firstly, Jobs (2005) stated he attended a typography class which did not have a practical application until he was designing the first computers. Furthermore, Jobs (2005) affirmed he found what he really liked to do early in life: establishing his own company. Finally, Jobs (2005) admitted time did not have to be wasted and he confessed he lived each day as if it was the last. As a conclusion, Jobs (2005) acknowledged people should love what they do to achieve great work.
Reference
Jobs, S. (Producer), & Jobs, S. (Director). (2005). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech [Motion picture]. United States of America: CEO of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios.
This summary was done in reference to Steve Jobs’speech (2005) to a group of recent graduates. Firstly, Jobs (2005) stated he attended a typography class which did not have a practical application until he was designing the first computers. Furthermore, Jobs (2005) affirmed he found what he really liked to do early in life: establishing his own company. Finally, Jobs (2005) admitted time did not have to be wasted and he confessed he lived each day as if it was the last. As a conclusion, Jobs (2005) acknowledged people should love what they do to achieve great work.
Reference
Jobs, S. (Producer), & Jobs, S. (Director). (2005). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech [Motion picture]. United States of America: CEO of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios.
My first journal entry on the use of the critical incidents
My first journal entry on the use of the critical incidents
The Critical Incident Technique is a useful strategy that is used to analyze situations that happen within the classroom as well as reflect upon them. The concept of reflection does not only mean thinking about what it has been done or not, but also trying to look for a possible solution when an unusual situation happens in the classes (Fernández González et al., 2003).
As regards my own teaching experience, one of my students, a ten-year-old boy, seemed to be apathetic in my classes. Therefore, I started to get close to him and I realized that what he needed was affection. I decided to pay more attention to his performance. As a result, he began to feel more interested in the subject and showed enthusiasm for learning English.
Additionally, whenever we are analyzing critical incidents, we need to take into account the following steps: setting the context in which they occur, describing the situation in detail, mentioning the possible causes, and pointing out the possible solutions to the given situation (Fernández González et al., 2003).
For instance, a seventeen-year-old boy handed in a home-made informal letter, and he signed it using one of his partners’ names. I did not realize that both letters look similar until I reached the end of them. I analyzed what could cause this critical incident, and immediately understood that he had cheated the assignment because he had not done it. Finally, I warned him not to do that anymore, and I encouraged him to be more sincere next time.
In conclusion, the use of critical incidents is a process that involves reflection, analyses and action (Fernández González et al., 2003). It allows teachers to look at what it has been done as well as to have the chance to find a solution to the critical incidents. On the whole, this way of working encourages teachers to better the processes of teaching and learning.
Reference
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos de la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
The Critical Incident Technique is a useful strategy that is used to analyze situations that happen within the classroom as well as reflect upon them. The concept of reflection does not only mean thinking about what it has been done or not, but also trying to look for a possible solution when an unusual situation happens in the classes (Fernández González et al., 2003).
As regards my own teaching experience, one of my students, a ten-year-old boy, seemed to be apathetic in my classes. Therefore, I started to get close to him and I realized that what he needed was affection. I decided to pay more attention to his performance. As a result, he began to feel more interested in the subject and showed enthusiasm for learning English.
Additionally, whenever we are analyzing critical incidents, we need to take into account the following steps: setting the context in which they occur, describing the situation in detail, mentioning the possible causes, and pointing out the possible solutions to the given situation (Fernández González et al., 2003).
For instance, a seventeen-year-old boy handed in a home-made informal letter, and he signed it using one of his partners’ names. I did not realize that both letters look similar until I reached the end of them. I analyzed what could cause this critical incident, and immediately understood that he had cheated the assignment because he had not done it. Finally, I warned him not to do that anymore, and I encouraged him to be more sincere next time.
In conclusion, the use of critical incidents is a process that involves reflection, analyses and action (Fernández González et al., 2003). It allows teachers to look at what it has been done as well as to have the chance to find a solution to the critical incidents. On the whole, this way of working encourages teachers to better the processes of teaching and learning.
Reference
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos de la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Reflecting upon the teaching profession
Reflecting upon the teaching profession
Many times teachers believe that there are not useful tools to reflect upon their teaching practices. Nonetheless, along the following paragraphs, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), which is a useful method of teaching thinking, will be explained. Furthermore, many terms related to critical incidents will be defined, and many areas in which CIT could be applied will be analyzed.
According to Flanagan (1954), the Critical Incident Technique is a set of procedures used to collect direct observations of human behavior. They are gathered so as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles. This technique selects the incidents which are relevant as well as those that meet an established criterion.
An incident is an observable human event which is considered complete in itself to allow inferences and predictions to be made about the person in charge of that activity (Flanagan, 1954). In order to be critical, an incident should take place in a situation where its purpose is clear enough to the observer, and where its results are as much as precise as possible.
The word objectivity refers to the manner some independent observers judge the same incident. The Critical Incident Technique does not consist of a set of rules, but of a flexible set of principles that could vary depending on the situation which is about to analyze (Flanagan, 1954). The main idea is that these principles are not totally set before hand.
By general aim is meant a concise statement which takes into account those objectives which most people would agree (Flanagan, 1954). The authorities in each field are in charge of defining the general aims which are obtained with the purpose of reaching an agreement among the participants. If the general aims, while working with CIT are formulated, observers will know what it is necessary to do and not to do. In this way, if they understand what they are expected to accomplish, they will judge the situation successfully.
Whenever a general aim is designed, it is essential to follow some steps. First of all, it is necessary to specify the situation to be observed, such as the conditions, the people, the place and the activities. After the delimitation of the situation, it is convenient to analyze if the observed behavior is relevant or not. The next step is to decide if the critical incident makes a significant contribution to the general aims of the activity. Finally, it is required to select and train the observers who will make and report the judgements (Flanagan, 1954). The more familiar they are with the activity, the better decisions they will make.
Once the general aims have been designed, the data collection phase will take place. It is important to obtain recent events so as to ensure that the incidents represent what actually happens in the real world. There are four procedures used to collect data. One of them is the use of interviews, which requires trained people who could explain to the observers what data should be collected. Another method is the group interview which has been developed in order to lower the cost in time and personnel. The next one is the questionnaire which is needed when the group is mostly large. The last procedure is called the record form, which is done by writing records of the observed incident (Flanagan, 1954).
After taking into account the four procedures used to gather data, the group interview seems to be the most appropriate way of collecting data within the educational field. This procedure is useful because personal contact is always available and explanation on the part of the interviewer is provided to all the members of the observed group. Furthermore, all the members could interact with each other and have a voice to be heard.
According to Flanagan (1954), the data analysis is ultimately used for practical purposes. Therefore, data should be summarized and described as efficiently as possible in order to obtain a reference of what is being done in a proper way and what is not. Critical Incident Technique can be applied to many different and varied areas only if the obtained samples are representative, the judges are well-qualified and the procedures used to observe and gather incidents are accurate.
One of the areas is measures of typical performance, where the emphasis is placed on the preparation of a particular procedure to evaluate the typical performance of people engaged in this activity. The second one is measures of proficiency, where CIT is useful because it allows checking if proficiency along the training course is maintained or not. The third area is training, in which special training programs and materials are developed. Selection and classification is another one, where CIT is also applied to predict performance within a job (Flanagan, 1954).
The Critical Incident Technique could be applied to even more areas, which are going to be described below. To begin with, the job design and purification area, in which it is intended to maximize the effectiveness of performance. The next one is operating procedures, where data is analyzed in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations (Flanagan, 1954).
Another area is called equipment design, in which CIT provides a useful way of collecting a large amount of critical incidents related to the operating experience, and in this way it allows the design of equipments. The last one is motivation and leadership, where CIT is a valuable source for the study of attitudes, in the sense that it does not only contain data on opinions, but also factual data encouraging future choices and decisions (Flanagan, 1954).
As a conclusion, the Critical Incident Technique could be applied to many areas, such as education. It is a useful and effective method of reflective practice. It does not only provide observers with data about the observed situation, but it also helps them to solve practical problems. If the event is properly collected and analyzed, CIT is an effective way of reflecting upon our practices and making decisions about what should be changed or what should remain within our teaching experiences.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Many times teachers believe that there are not useful tools to reflect upon their teaching practices. Nonetheless, along the following paragraphs, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), which is a useful method of teaching thinking, will be explained. Furthermore, many terms related to critical incidents will be defined, and many areas in which CIT could be applied will be analyzed.
According to Flanagan (1954), the Critical Incident Technique is a set of procedures used to collect direct observations of human behavior. They are gathered so as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles. This technique selects the incidents which are relevant as well as those that meet an established criterion.
An incident is an observable human event which is considered complete in itself to allow inferences and predictions to be made about the person in charge of that activity (Flanagan, 1954). In order to be critical, an incident should take place in a situation where its purpose is clear enough to the observer, and where its results are as much as precise as possible.
The word objectivity refers to the manner some independent observers judge the same incident. The Critical Incident Technique does not consist of a set of rules, but of a flexible set of principles that could vary depending on the situation which is about to analyze (Flanagan, 1954). The main idea is that these principles are not totally set before hand.
By general aim is meant a concise statement which takes into account those objectives which most people would agree (Flanagan, 1954). The authorities in each field are in charge of defining the general aims which are obtained with the purpose of reaching an agreement among the participants. If the general aims, while working with CIT are formulated, observers will know what it is necessary to do and not to do. In this way, if they understand what they are expected to accomplish, they will judge the situation successfully.
Whenever a general aim is designed, it is essential to follow some steps. First of all, it is necessary to specify the situation to be observed, such as the conditions, the people, the place and the activities. After the delimitation of the situation, it is convenient to analyze if the observed behavior is relevant or not. The next step is to decide if the critical incident makes a significant contribution to the general aims of the activity. Finally, it is required to select and train the observers who will make and report the judgements (Flanagan, 1954). The more familiar they are with the activity, the better decisions they will make.
Once the general aims have been designed, the data collection phase will take place. It is important to obtain recent events so as to ensure that the incidents represent what actually happens in the real world. There are four procedures used to collect data. One of them is the use of interviews, which requires trained people who could explain to the observers what data should be collected. Another method is the group interview which has been developed in order to lower the cost in time and personnel. The next one is the questionnaire which is needed when the group is mostly large. The last procedure is called the record form, which is done by writing records of the observed incident (Flanagan, 1954).
After taking into account the four procedures used to gather data, the group interview seems to be the most appropriate way of collecting data within the educational field. This procedure is useful because personal contact is always available and explanation on the part of the interviewer is provided to all the members of the observed group. Furthermore, all the members could interact with each other and have a voice to be heard.
According to Flanagan (1954), the data analysis is ultimately used for practical purposes. Therefore, data should be summarized and described as efficiently as possible in order to obtain a reference of what is being done in a proper way and what is not. Critical Incident Technique can be applied to many different and varied areas only if the obtained samples are representative, the judges are well-qualified and the procedures used to observe and gather incidents are accurate.
One of the areas is measures of typical performance, where the emphasis is placed on the preparation of a particular procedure to evaluate the typical performance of people engaged in this activity. The second one is measures of proficiency, where CIT is useful because it allows checking if proficiency along the training course is maintained or not. The third area is training, in which special training programs and materials are developed. Selection and classification is another one, where CIT is also applied to predict performance within a job (Flanagan, 1954).
The Critical Incident Technique could be applied to even more areas, which are going to be described below. To begin with, the job design and purification area, in which it is intended to maximize the effectiveness of performance. The next one is operating procedures, where data is analyzed in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations (Flanagan, 1954).
Another area is called equipment design, in which CIT provides a useful way of collecting a large amount of critical incidents related to the operating experience, and in this way it allows the design of equipments. The last one is motivation and leadership, where CIT is a valuable source for the study of attitudes, in the sense that it does not only contain data on opinions, but also factual data encouraging future choices and decisions (Flanagan, 1954).
As a conclusion, the Critical Incident Technique could be applied to many areas, such as education. It is a useful and effective method of reflective practice. It does not only provide observers with data about the observed situation, but it also helps them to solve practical problems. If the event is properly collected and analyzed, CIT is an effective way of reflecting upon our practices and making decisions about what should be changed or what should remain within our teaching experiences.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Reading and writing
Reading and writing
Purpose: To connect the processes of reading and writing.
Thesis: Reading and writing are closely related to each other.
Audience: Readers and writers who are English native speakers or those who are learning it as a second language.
I. Bramki & Williams (1984) strategies (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Jordan (1997) comprehension (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Reading comprehension
2. Vocabulary development
B. Jordan (1997) production (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Writing
II. Martin (1976) types of academic vocabulary (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Research-process vocabulary
B. Vocabulary of analysis
C. Evaluative vocabulary
III. Nutall (1996) requisites (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Sharing the same code
B. Learning to write
C. Writing to learn
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Purpose: To connect the processes of reading and writing.
Thesis: Reading and writing are closely related to each other.
Audience: Readers and writers who are English native speakers or those who are learning it as a second language.
I. Bramki & Williams (1984) strategies (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Jordan (1997) comprehension (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Reading comprehension
2. Vocabulary development
B. Jordan (1997) production (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Writing
II. Martin (1976) types of academic vocabulary (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Research-process vocabulary
B. Vocabulary of analysis
C. Evaluative vocabulary
III. Nutall (1996) requisites (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Sharing the same code
B. Learning to write
C. Writing to learn
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Reading in academic contexts
Reading in academic contexts
Whenever educators teach academic reading, they are expected to choose from a set of approaches, such as the psychological approach, the linguistic approach, the content-oriented approach and the pedagogically-oriented approach (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997). These approaches will be explained in detail.
According to Bloor (1985), the psychological approach takes place when teachers provide students with a piece of writing so as to involve them in the processes of reading. The aim of this activity is to teach and acquire specific vocabulary. Once students have dealt with the given articles, they are asked to put the new set of vocabulary into practice. Students might answer some questions, solve a task related to that vocabulary and many other activities.
In reference to the linguistic approach (Bloor, 1985), students are asked to deal with the words or sentences of a given text in order to solve some grammatical exercises. For instance, if educators are teaching the present perfect tense, they give their students an article not only to work on the specific vocabulary, but also to do some tasks related to the mentioned tense (information-gap activities, questions and answers, etc).
Taking into account the content- oriented approach and its main purpose focused on reading, if teachers provide students with a specific purpose for reading, they will be interested in fulfilling the task they are intended to do (Bloor, 1985). For instance, teachers could give their learners a particular brochure so that they can create their own piece of writing once they have read it. After students have read and analysed the giving brochure, they create their own one.
As regards the pedagogically- oriented approach, the learning theories are essential to motivate students to read. Therefore, students have the opportunity to choose from a given set of materials provided by the teacher. They select what they want to read and work at their own pace. In this way, pupils feel strongly motivated to read because they can read and work on what they really appreciate.
In conclusion, reading should be emphasized in order to develop the ability of writing, because the more we read, the better we write. Once students have been engaged in the process of reading, they will develop their own writing processes. Both processes are closely related to each other.
Reference
Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Whenever educators teach academic reading, they are expected to choose from a set of approaches, such as the psychological approach, the linguistic approach, the content-oriented approach and the pedagogically-oriented approach (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997). These approaches will be explained in detail.
According to Bloor (1985), the psychological approach takes place when teachers provide students with a piece of writing so as to involve them in the processes of reading. The aim of this activity is to teach and acquire specific vocabulary. Once students have dealt with the given articles, they are asked to put the new set of vocabulary into practice. Students might answer some questions, solve a task related to that vocabulary and many other activities.
In reference to the linguistic approach (Bloor, 1985), students are asked to deal with the words or sentences of a given text in order to solve some grammatical exercises. For instance, if educators are teaching the present perfect tense, they give their students an article not only to work on the specific vocabulary, but also to do some tasks related to the mentioned tense (information-gap activities, questions and answers, etc).
Taking into account the content- oriented approach and its main purpose focused on reading, if teachers provide students with a specific purpose for reading, they will be interested in fulfilling the task they are intended to do (Bloor, 1985). For instance, teachers could give their learners a particular brochure so that they can create their own piece of writing once they have read it. After students have read and analysed the giving brochure, they create their own one.
As regards the pedagogically- oriented approach, the learning theories are essential to motivate students to read. Therefore, students have the opportunity to choose from a given set of materials provided by the teacher. They select what they want to read and work at their own pace. In this way, pupils feel strongly motivated to read because they can read and work on what they really appreciate.
In conclusion, reading should be emphasized in order to develop the ability of writing, because the more we read, the better we write. Once students have been engaged in the process of reading, they will develop their own writing processes. Both processes are closely related to each other.
Reference
Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
How to reach student achievement
How to reach student achievement
The definitions of the words policymakers, educators, and student achievement will be provided. There will also be a classification of discourse markers which are used to connect ideas or thoughts. Additionally, some insights of management approaches will be described (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005).
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), policymakers are those professionals who establish a set of rules related to the improvement of the quality of instruction in classrooms. Consequently, the educators are the ones who put into practice the policymakers’ plans and ideas.
What is more, instruction is the process of teaching a particular subject/topic to a particular group of people (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005). It could be positive or negative. It is positive when our pupils acquire what we have expected, and it is negative when our expectations do not match with students’ level of knowledge.
Student achievement refers to what our students are expected to achieve. What our students acquire as a result of instruction. Student achievement is closely related to the quality of instruction. The first is the consequence of the last. The better teachers hold their lessons, the better their students will learn.
In order to connect our thoughts or ideas, it is necessary to use discourse markers. There are many types of these devices. For instance, those which add a point are as well as, and, and in addition (to). There are also discourse markers used for contrast, such as however, nevertheless, even though, though, despite, but, instead of, and or, or for developing a point in addition, moreover, and furthermore.
Besides, whenever we analyze an article or any other piece of writing, we could find discourse markers for explaining reasons, such as as a result, because, because of, and therefore, for expressing a result, and, after all as well as so, or just for starting, first. They are also useful discourses markers used to give examples, as for example and for instance.
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), grounded in management approaches means based on management approaches. The data-based improvement is based on management approaches such as the Total Quality Management. The data-based improvement is the result of the application of management approaches.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the role of teachers (educators) in education, as parts of student achievement. As it is mentioned previously in the text, student achievement is the result of teacher instruction. In addition, professional development also improves the way educators teach.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Providing for Rural Teachers’ Professional Development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
The definitions of the words policymakers, educators, and student achievement will be provided. There will also be a classification of discourse markers which are used to connect ideas or thoughts. Additionally, some insights of management approaches will be described (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005).
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), policymakers are those professionals who establish a set of rules related to the improvement of the quality of instruction in classrooms. Consequently, the educators are the ones who put into practice the policymakers’ plans and ideas.
What is more, instruction is the process of teaching a particular subject/topic to a particular group of people (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005). It could be positive or negative. It is positive when our pupils acquire what we have expected, and it is negative when our expectations do not match with students’ level of knowledge.
Student achievement refers to what our students are expected to achieve. What our students acquire as a result of instruction. Student achievement is closely related to the quality of instruction. The first is the consequence of the last. The better teachers hold their lessons, the better their students will learn.
In order to connect our thoughts or ideas, it is necessary to use discourse markers. There are many types of these devices. For instance, those which add a point are as well as, and, and in addition (to). There are also discourse markers used for contrast, such as however, nevertheless, even though, though, despite, but, instead of, and or, or for developing a point in addition, moreover, and furthermore.
Besides, whenever we analyze an article or any other piece of writing, we could find discourse markers for explaining reasons, such as as a result, because, because of, and therefore, for expressing a result, and, after all as well as so, or just for starting, first. They are also useful discourses markers used to give examples, as for example and for instance.
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), grounded in management approaches means based on management approaches. The data-based improvement is based on management approaches such as the Total Quality Management. The data-based improvement is the result of the application of management approaches.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the role of teachers (educators) in education, as parts of student achievement. As it is mentioned previously in the text, student achievement is the result of teacher instruction. In addition, professional development also improves the way educators teach.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Providing for Rural Teachers’ Professional Development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
Discourse community and its basis characteristics
Discourse community and its basis characteristics
The aim of this paper is to describe what Swales (1990) has claimed as a discourse community as well as to find support from other sources. Furthermore, we will be able to read about the six requirements that a discourse community should meet in order to be considered as such.
To begin with, Swales (1990) has stated that a discourse community is a group of people who share common purposes, attitudes, values and who agree in what way they could achieve their shared aims. Swales (1990) has also proposed six requirements that are specific to discourse communities: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology as well as high general level of expertise.
The concept of common goals refers to each group who should have specific commitments and share the same interests. According to Kelly-Kleese (2001), “the community college can be seen as a discourse community: its members have developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships, similar attitudes and values, shared understandings about how to communicate their knowledge and achieve their shared purposes, and a flow of discourse that has a particular structure” (p.1).
The next concept is that of participatory mechanisms which are used in order to provide information and feedback among the members of the community. Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “for teaching learning to occur, teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (p.1). What is more, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have taken into account Vigotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which suggests that reflection would be impossible without the socially guided participation.
In reference to the requirement of information exchange, the members of the group should be intercommunicated so as to survive as a group. According to Kelly-Kleese (2004), “sharing knowledge is more than research and publication” (p.5). In addition to this, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “interactions with the people in one’s environment are major determinants of both what is learned and how learning takes place” (p.1).
Taking into consideration the concept of community-specific genres, the group should have at least one genre/style that connects each one of the members with the rest. Kelly-Kleese (2004) has pointed out that “community colleges have institutional missions that differ from the universities and four-year-colleges because their student bodies are comprised largely of nontraditional and at-risk students” (p.2). Furthermore, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have claimed that “phenomenology is a discourse community that focuses on the individual’s personal experiences, thoughts and feelings” (p.7).
Highly specialized terminology points out that all discourse communities should have their own use of abbreviations and acronyms that gives them identity. Taking into account Kelly-Kleese’s review (2001), “the community college can be seen as adopting language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community, meaning that is less applicable to its own community but is nonetheless consistently used. The use of such language and definitions exemplifies the argument that the communicative competence within academe belongs to the university discourse community” (p.2).
The last concept is high general level of expertise which emphasizes that each community should arrive at a certain level of knowledge. In the article Community College Review, Kelly-Kleese (2004) has proposed that “within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously” (p.3).
In conclusion, not only have we reflected upon the definition of discourse community, but we have also stated the six requirements that should take place within any discourse community. On top of that, we have supported Swales’ notions and found enough evidence in favor of them.
References
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A.J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into practice. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_29/ai_n77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
The aim of this paper is to describe what Swales (1990) has claimed as a discourse community as well as to find support from other sources. Furthermore, we will be able to read about the six requirements that a discourse community should meet in order to be considered as such.
To begin with, Swales (1990) has stated that a discourse community is a group of people who share common purposes, attitudes, values and who agree in what way they could achieve their shared aims. Swales (1990) has also proposed six requirements that are specific to discourse communities: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology as well as high general level of expertise.
The concept of common goals refers to each group who should have specific commitments and share the same interests. According to Kelly-Kleese (2001), “the community college can be seen as a discourse community: its members have developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships, similar attitudes and values, shared understandings about how to communicate their knowledge and achieve their shared purposes, and a flow of discourse that has a particular structure” (p.1).
The next concept is that of participatory mechanisms which are used in order to provide information and feedback among the members of the community. Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “for teaching learning to occur, teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (p.1). What is more, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have taken into account Vigotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which suggests that reflection would be impossible without the socially guided participation.
In reference to the requirement of information exchange, the members of the group should be intercommunicated so as to survive as a group. According to Kelly-Kleese (2004), “sharing knowledge is more than research and publication” (p.5). In addition to this, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “interactions with the people in one’s environment are major determinants of both what is learned and how learning takes place” (p.1).
Taking into consideration the concept of community-specific genres, the group should have at least one genre/style that connects each one of the members with the rest. Kelly-Kleese (2004) has pointed out that “community colleges have institutional missions that differ from the universities and four-year-colleges because their student bodies are comprised largely of nontraditional and at-risk students” (p.2). Furthermore, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have claimed that “phenomenology is a discourse community that focuses on the individual’s personal experiences, thoughts and feelings” (p.7).
Highly specialized terminology points out that all discourse communities should have their own use of abbreviations and acronyms that gives them identity. Taking into account Kelly-Kleese’s review (2001), “the community college can be seen as adopting language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community, meaning that is less applicable to its own community but is nonetheless consistently used. The use of such language and definitions exemplifies the argument that the communicative competence within academe belongs to the university discourse community” (p.2).
The last concept is high general level of expertise which emphasizes that each community should arrive at a certain level of knowledge. In the article Community College Review, Kelly-Kleese (2004) has proposed that “within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously” (p.3).
In conclusion, not only have we reflected upon the definition of discourse community, but we have also stated the six requirements that should take place within any discourse community. On top of that, we have supported Swales’ notions and found enough evidence in favor of them.
References
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A.J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into practice. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_29/ai_n77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
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