Writing research articles involves respecting some academic requirements. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010a), “research articles are composed of several parts: title, abstract, acknowledgements, introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussions, recommendations, references, and appendixes” (p. 27). These steps make the papers organized and tidy, and they guide the readers throughout the article.
However, these requirements are not always fulfilled similarly. Educational articles could be written following the American Psychological Association (APA, 2008) conventions. In contrast, medicine papers could be made respecting the Vancouver System, which presents the academic standards for the field of medicine.
Throughout this paper, two research articles will be compared and contrasted in order to find similarities and differences among them. Both articles will be analyzed taking into account their distinguishing features. Therefore, the purpose of this current study is to compare and contrast these two research papers.
The educational article deals with online distance education (Zhang & Kenny, 2010), and it presents an informative and unstructured abstract (Pintos & Crimi, 2010c). This summary describes what the authors did, and it provides readers with the most important findings. Besides, it consists of one long, unbroken paragraph.
This research article does not contain acknowledgements, but it does have an introduction named background to the study. Within this section, Zhang and Kenny (2010) state essential information to understand the purpose of the study and their need to run research. These authors also provide a literature review which is divided among several headings with the purpose of supporting their point of view.
The methods section introduces five subsections: purpose, research questions, participants, data collection and data analysis (Zhang & Kenny, 2010). As Pintos and Crimi (2010a) have summarized, the word methods is centered at the start of the section, and the subsections are typed at the left margin. This part deals with the aim of research articles, its two research questions as well as how data was collected and analyzed.
This educational paper names the results section with the title findings (Zhang & Kenny, 2010). This part is also divided into several subheadings: previous educational experiences, English language proficiency, life experiences together with socializing in the online environment. Many non native English speakers are cited in this section in order to present the main results (Pintos & Crimi, 2010b).
The discussions section aims at interpreting the research outcomes. For instance, Zhang and Kenny (2010) have claimed that “Mitra had confidence in her command of English but stated that she had difficulties communicating with peers or the discussion board about certain topics” (Discussion, ¶ 3). Though the conclusion could be written together with the discussions, it is placed in isolation in order to summarize the key results.
This research article does not contain recommendations, but it does have references as well as appendixes. The reference section is written respecting the APA (2008) standards. The appendixes section includes three appendixes intended to show how information was gathered (Zhang and Kenny, 2010). The first appendix is an online survey (Appendix A); the second, an email interview questions (Appendix B); and the third, sample telephone/ face-to-face interviews questions (Appendix C).
On the other hand, the medicine article deals with the maternal and paternal age at delivery, birth order, and the risk of childhood onset type 1 diabetes (Stene, Magnus, Lie, Søvik1 & Jones, 2001). This paper contains an informative and structured abstract (Pintos & Crimi, 2010c). It is informative since it presents the results of the research, and it is structured because it consists of bolded headings that represent the main sections of the whole paper.
This academic article does not state acknowledgements above the abstract, though it contains an introduction which is composed of three moves (Pintos & Crimi, 2010a). The first paragraph creates a research space, the second indicates which the gap of the research is and the third occupies the gap by outlining the main purpose of the research. Though this paper does not present a literature review as a separate heading, it does have it implicitly within the introduction section.
The methods section of this research article is not divided into subsections, and its main title is named subjects and methods, which is typed at the left margin. Stene et al. (2001) concentrate on how they have carried out the research. These authors outlined all the steps they follow to run their current investigation.
The results section also presents its main findings, but it does so including two tables which “allow authors to present a large proportion of information in a small amount of space” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p.22). These tables are properly numbered, have individual titles, horizontal lines and specific notes which explain a particular item in the table (Stene et al., 2001).
This research article states the discussions together with the conclusions. Though serious academic writing avoids concluding paragraphs with the phrase in conclusion (Pintos & Crimi, 2010b), this paper does so in order to introduce the conclusion. According to Stene et al. (2001), the research problem has not been solved. They cited that “… the relation between maternal age, birth order, and risk of type 1 diabetes is more complex than previously thought” (Possible explanations for the effect, ¶ 5).
Although this medicine article does not present the acknowledgements below the abstract, it does include them after the discussions section. Acknowledgements are incorporated to thank all the staff and contributors for their help. The references section is not written respecting the APA (2008) conventions, but following the Vancouver referencing system, which establishes the standards required for the field of medicine.
Though both papers seem to have covered nearly all the parts of research articles, they differ in their layouts. Their types of abstracts are different. While the medicine paper includes the discussions section isolated from the conclusion; the educational article incorporates the conclusion together with the discussions. On top of that, the educational research article follows the APA rules, and the medicine fulfills the Vancouver referencing System standards.
References
American Psychological Association (2008). Publication Manual (5th ed). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010a). Unit 2: The Research Article: introduction, literature review and methods sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved July 20, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4691
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010b). Unit 1: Unit 3: The Research Article: results, discussions, and conclusions. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires. Retrieved July 20, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4692
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010c). Unit 1: Unit 4: Research Articles: abstracts. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires. Retrieved July 20, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4693
Stene, L. C., Magnus, P., Lie, R. T., Søvik, O., & Joner, G. (2001). Maternal and paternal age at delivery, birth order, and risk of childhood onset type 1 diabetes: population based cohort study. BMJ, 323 (7309), 369. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7309.369
Zhang, Z., & Kenny, R. F. (2010). Learning in an Online Education Course: Experiences of Three International Students. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 11 (1). Retrieved July 20, 2010, from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/viewArticle/775/1481
lunes, 26 de julio de 2010
viernes, 23 de julio de 2010
Proposal: Motivating young learners to learn English
Motivating young learners to learn English
Natalia Menéndez
CAECE University
Abstract
This study aims at finding indicators of the importance of motivation while students are learning English. This research will be carried out with two groups of learners who attend different state-run schools from two towns called Bordenave and 17 de Agosto. They belong to EPB 2 (Educación Primaria Básica) courses and they are between 10 and 13 years old. Appropriate activities for these groups of students will be implemented in the lessons. Carrying out science experiments, telling stories, listening to songs as well as playing games will be taken into account to motivate learners and make classes more enjoyable. These activities will be selected according to students’ ages, needs and preferences. Apart from that, a continuous observation will take place in order to determine whether the selected activities are beneficial for the students or not. Besides, evaluation will be formative instead of summative, since learners also have two other periods per week with another teacher who carries out formal tests.
Motivating young learners to learn English
Introduction of the study
Motivation places an essential role in language learning. Students’ needs as well as preferences should be met in order to succeed in their attempts to learn a language. Thus, teachers of English are in charge of creating this path towards learning. They are also responsible for planning and carrying out activities that motivate learners in the process of acquiring a second language.
Though motivating students is of paramount importance, teachers do not seem to be aware of this issue. If teachers are not conscious enough of the significance of motivation in their language lessons, language acquisition will not probably take place. They need to be well-informed to start incorporating motivation into their lessons. If teachers work towards including motivation in their classes, students will be able to learn English enthusiastically and effectively.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this research work is to find indicators of why motivating young learners to learn a second language is important. In other words, the aim of this study is why motivation places such an essential role so as to promote language learning.
Rationale
According to Read (1999), “in order to ensure that learning English in the early years is a motivating and valuable part of children’s education, it is essential to adopt an approach which takes account of children’s special characteristics and needs” (p. 33). Among the author’s basic principles, Read (1999) states that motivation is vital, no matter what the teaching context is.
However, keeping students motivated involves much more than playing funny games without setting clear objectives. Thus, “fun should have a role in, rather than just be a feature of children’s education” (Rixon, 1994, p. 33). If games are properly planned, they are so useful and so important because the fun element creates a desire to communicate (Halliwell, 1992).
Discussion
The research questions for this study will be:
_Do activities with real and meaningful contents promote learning?
_Do learners enjoy story-telling?
_Are games, songs and rhymes positive sources that stimulate effective learning?
Delimitations
This current research will be carried out in six 4th, 5th and 6th year courses at two state-run schools in the province of Buenos Aires. Although these schools do not belong to the same town, their ways of working are very similar to each other. The experiential group belongs to a small town called Bordenave. Eighty students attend this school and the majority of them belong to a low middle class. Though EPB 1 (Educación Primaria Básica) students are at school from 1 to 5 p.m., EPB 2 learners are from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. and they have English lessons four periods of 50 minutes per week.
Limitations
Although these learners have four periods per week, only two of them will be used to run this research. The other two periods are taught by a teacher who tends to be quite grammar-based. Therefore, timing could be a constraint to carry out this research.
Revision of literature
According to Cameron (2001), “children bring to language learning their curiosity and eagerness to make sense of the world. They will tackle the most demanding tasks with enthusiasm and willingness” (p. 246). Therefore, teachers need to take advantage of their eagerness and find strategies of motivating students to learn the foreign language.
“Teachers thus need to examine classroom activities from the child’s point of view in order to assess whether pupils will understand what to do and will be able to make sense of new language” (Cameron, 2001, p. 19). There are many activities that teachers could select in order to make their lessons more interesting and appealing.
One of the activities could be devising tasks which involve a real content such as science experiments. Read (2002) has claimed that if teachers incorporate activities with real content, lessons become more enjoyable and children feel motivated to discover things about the real world.
According to Read (2002), “children’s involvement in purposeful scientific activity, even at the simplest level, can help to promote positive attitudes towards ways of thinking and working that will be invaluable to them both as language learners and as people” (p. 23). Therefore, these activities could help students acquire English.
Incorporating activities with real content in our language lessons encourages learners to use language purposefully. Besides, as the focus is placed on real meaning, language tends to be easily memorable (Read, 2002). According to Halliwell (1992), “through demonstrating by doing and by using sources of understanding other than language the teacher explains even apparently complicated activities in a very simple language” (p. 18).
Another aspect which could be highly motivating is the inclusion of stories in the English lesson. According to Slattery and Willis (2001), children do love stories and feel always eager to listen to them. Thus, reading as well as listening to them could be funny and at the same time, memorable.
According to Cameron (2001), “stories offer a whole imaginary world, created by language, that children can enter and enjoy, learning language as they go” (p. 159). Thus, learning a language through stories is highly effective, and if it is handled properly, it promotes learning.
However, there are some guidelines that teachers should bear in mind before choosing a story book. A good story book for language learning will have interesting characters that children can empathize with, a clear plot which may have a surprise or twist at the end as well as a proper selection of pictures (Cameron, 2001).
Slattery and Willis (2001) have stated the most important reasons for using stories in language classes. Stories could help children imagine what it feels like to be someone else, they could also introduce the child to other cultures and attitudes, and they could be fun, enjoyable and interesting.
Games could also contribute to make lessons more interesting and appealing for second language learners. According to Rixon (1994), concentration, close listening and memory strategies are among the general educational benefits games may promote.
What is more, Rixon (1994) defines fun and games as “all those activities that we loosely think of as involving play and enjoyment” (p. 34). However, teachers should have a specific purpose to carry out games in order to encourage second language learning.
Last but by no means least, songs and rhymes are also a good method of motivating the students in the foreign language classroom. According to Rixon (1994), “primary school language learning should promote the formation of a positive attitude to language learning in general. It should form a good basis for secondary school studies” (p. 35).
Though songs and rhymes encourage students to learn a language, teachers should be careful while selecting them. The structure and vocabulary should remain simple (Halliwell, 1992) as well as easily understood. Songs and rhymes should be chosen taking into account the students’ language level; they should be neither too difficult nor too easy.
Procedures
Participants
Learners who attend two state-run schools. They belong to EPB 2 (4th, 5th and 6th years) courses and they are between 10 and 13 years old. Although both schools are located in different towns, they share similar backgrounds.
Materials
Activities which seem to be interesting and challenging for these groups of students will be implemented in the lessons. Carrying out science experiments, telling stories, listening to songs as well as playing games will be taken into account to motivate learners and make classes more enjoyable.
These activities will be selected according to students’ ages, needs and preferences. Apart from that, a continuous observation will take place in order to determine whether the selected activities are beneficial for the students or not. Besides, evaluation will take place constantly, since learners also have two other periods per week with another teacher who carries out formal tests.
Procedure
The same topics will be taught in both groups. However, the activities that will be used are different. Though the control group will be exposed to communicative activities, the experiential group will undertake more games, stories and songs in order to discover if motivated learners acquire English better than unmotivated students. The control group will have to sit for formal tests. Together with this type of evaluation, both groups will be evaluated constantly, through the teacher’s observation.
Conclusion
This study aims at helping teachers of English to understand the importance of motivation in their lesson. It also incorporates some samples of meaningful activities in which students could be enthusiastic to learn this second language. Therefore, this research paper could be put into practice by all those teachers who find their classes boring and not challenging enough. Their results could be highly helpful to continue going through this issue.
References
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: University Press.
Halliwell, S. (1992). Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. New York: Longman.
Read, C. (1999). Towards whole learning. IATEFL CATS, 33-39.
Read, C. (2002). Simple science. English teaching professional, 23-26.
Rixon, S. (1994). Chapter 3: The role of fun and games activities in teaching young learners. In C. Brumfit, J. Moon & R. Tongue (Eds.), Teaching English to Children: From Practice to Principle (pp. 33-48). London: Thomas Nelson.
Slattery, M., & Willis, J. (2001). English for Primary Teachers. Oxford: University Press.
Natalia Menéndez
CAECE University
Abstract
This study aims at finding indicators of the importance of motivation while students are learning English. This research will be carried out with two groups of learners who attend different state-run schools from two towns called Bordenave and 17 de Agosto. They belong to EPB 2 (Educación Primaria Básica) courses and they are between 10 and 13 years old. Appropriate activities for these groups of students will be implemented in the lessons. Carrying out science experiments, telling stories, listening to songs as well as playing games will be taken into account to motivate learners and make classes more enjoyable. These activities will be selected according to students’ ages, needs and preferences. Apart from that, a continuous observation will take place in order to determine whether the selected activities are beneficial for the students or not. Besides, evaluation will be formative instead of summative, since learners also have two other periods per week with another teacher who carries out formal tests.
Motivating young learners to learn English
Introduction of the study
Motivation places an essential role in language learning. Students’ needs as well as preferences should be met in order to succeed in their attempts to learn a language. Thus, teachers of English are in charge of creating this path towards learning. They are also responsible for planning and carrying out activities that motivate learners in the process of acquiring a second language.
Though motivating students is of paramount importance, teachers do not seem to be aware of this issue. If teachers are not conscious enough of the significance of motivation in their language lessons, language acquisition will not probably take place. They need to be well-informed to start incorporating motivation into their lessons. If teachers work towards including motivation in their classes, students will be able to learn English enthusiastically and effectively.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this research work is to find indicators of why motivating young learners to learn a second language is important. In other words, the aim of this study is why motivation places such an essential role so as to promote language learning.
Rationale
According to Read (1999), “in order to ensure that learning English in the early years is a motivating and valuable part of children’s education, it is essential to adopt an approach which takes account of children’s special characteristics and needs” (p. 33). Among the author’s basic principles, Read (1999) states that motivation is vital, no matter what the teaching context is.
However, keeping students motivated involves much more than playing funny games without setting clear objectives. Thus, “fun should have a role in, rather than just be a feature of children’s education” (Rixon, 1994, p. 33). If games are properly planned, they are so useful and so important because the fun element creates a desire to communicate (Halliwell, 1992).
Discussion
The research questions for this study will be:
_Do activities with real and meaningful contents promote learning?
_Do learners enjoy story-telling?
_Are games, songs and rhymes positive sources that stimulate effective learning?
Delimitations
This current research will be carried out in six 4th, 5th and 6th year courses at two state-run schools in the province of Buenos Aires. Although these schools do not belong to the same town, their ways of working are very similar to each other. The experiential group belongs to a small town called Bordenave. Eighty students attend this school and the majority of them belong to a low middle class. Though EPB 1 (Educación Primaria Básica) students are at school from 1 to 5 p.m., EPB 2 learners are from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. and they have English lessons four periods of 50 minutes per week.
Limitations
Although these learners have four periods per week, only two of them will be used to run this research. The other two periods are taught by a teacher who tends to be quite grammar-based. Therefore, timing could be a constraint to carry out this research.
Revision of literature
According to Cameron (2001), “children bring to language learning their curiosity and eagerness to make sense of the world. They will tackle the most demanding tasks with enthusiasm and willingness” (p. 246). Therefore, teachers need to take advantage of their eagerness and find strategies of motivating students to learn the foreign language.
“Teachers thus need to examine classroom activities from the child’s point of view in order to assess whether pupils will understand what to do and will be able to make sense of new language” (Cameron, 2001, p. 19). There are many activities that teachers could select in order to make their lessons more interesting and appealing.
One of the activities could be devising tasks which involve a real content such as science experiments. Read (2002) has claimed that if teachers incorporate activities with real content, lessons become more enjoyable and children feel motivated to discover things about the real world.
According to Read (2002), “children’s involvement in purposeful scientific activity, even at the simplest level, can help to promote positive attitudes towards ways of thinking and working that will be invaluable to them both as language learners and as people” (p. 23). Therefore, these activities could help students acquire English.
Incorporating activities with real content in our language lessons encourages learners to use language purposefully. Besides, as the focus is placed on real meaning, language tends to be easily memorable (Read, 2002). According to Halliwell (1992), “through demonstrating by doing and by using sources of understanding other than language the teacher explains even apparently complicated activities in a very simple language” (p. 18).
Another aspect which could be highly motivating is the inclusion of stories in the English lesson. According to Slattery and Willis (2001), children do love stories and feel always eager to listen to them. Thus, reading as well as listening to them could be funny and at the same time, memorable.
According to Cameron (2001), “stories offer a whole imaginary world, created by language, that children can enter and enjoy, learning language as they go” (p. 159). Thus, learning a language through stories is highly effective, and if it is handled properly, it promotes learning.
However, there are some guidelines that teachers should bear in mind before choosing a story book. A good story book for language learning will have interesting characters that children can empathize with, a clear plot which may have a surprise or twist at the end as well as a proper selection of pictures (Cameron, 2001).
Slattery and Willis (2001) have stated the most important reasons for using stories in language classes. Stories could help children imagine what it feels like to be someone else, they could also introduce the child to other cultures and attitudes, and they could be fun, enjoyable and interesting.
Games could also contribute to make lessons more interesting and appealing for second language learners. According to Rixon (1994), concentration, close listening and memory strategies are among the general educational benefits games may promote.
What is more, Rixon (1994) defines fun and games as “all those activities that we loosely think of as involving play and enjoyment” (p. 34). However, teachers should have a specific purpose to carry out games in order to encourage second language learning.
Last but by no means least, songs and rhymes are also a good method of motivating the students in the foreign language classroom. According to Rixon (1994), “primary school language learning should promote the formation of a positive attitude to language learning in general. It should form a good basis for secondary school studies” (p. 35).
Though songs and rhymes encourage students to learn a language, teachers should be careful while selecting them. The structure and vocabulary should remain simple (Halliwell, 1992) as well as easily understood. Songs and rhymes should be chosen taking into account the students’ language level; they should be neither too difficult nor too easy.
Procedures
Participants
Learners who attend two state-run schools. They belong to EPB 2 (4th, 5th and 6th years) courses and they are between 10 and 13 years old. Although both schools are located in different towns, they share similar backgrounds.
Materials
Activities which seem to be interesting and challenging for these groups of students will be implemented in the lessons. Carrying out science experiments, telling stories, listening to songs as well as playing games will be taken into account to motivate learners and make classes more enjoyable.
These activities will be selected according to students’ ages, needs and preferences. Apart from that, a continuous observation will take place in order to determine whether the selected activities are beneficial for the students or not. Besides, evaluation will take place constantly, since learners also have two other periods per week with another teacher who carries out formal tests.
Procedure
The same topics will be taught in both groups. However, the activities that will be used are different. Though the control group will be exposed to communicative activities, the experiential group will undertake more games, stories and songs in order to discover if motivated learners acquire English better than unmotivated students. The control group will have to sit for formal tests. Together with this type of evaluation, both groups will be evaluated constantly, through the teacher’s observation.
Conclusion
This study aims at helping teachers of English to understand the importance of motivation in their lesson. It also incorporates some samples of meaningful activities in which students could be enthusiastic to learn this second language. Therefore, this research paper could be put into practice by all those teachers who find their classes boring and not challenging enough. Their results could be highly helpful to continue going through this issue.
References
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: University Press.
Halliwell, S. (1992). Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. New York: Longman.
Read, C. (1999). Towards whole learning. IATEFL CATS, 33-39.
Read, C. (2002). Simple science. English teaching professional, 23-26.
Rixon, S. (1994). Chapter 3: The role of fun and games activities in teaching young learners. In C. Brumfit, J. Moon & R. Tongue (Eds.), Teaching English to Children: From Practice to Principle (pp. 33-48). London: Thomas Nelson.
Slattery, M., & Willis, J. (2001). English for Primary Teachers. Oxford: University Press.
How to write discussions sections academically (Mid-term exam)
The concept of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is of paramount importance. Its relevance is connected with education. Educators should possess the right competences to be able to implement ICT to their classes. In order to teach students the information and communication tools, teachers need to be familiar with them.
Throughout this paper, an article written by Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo, and Gastaldo (2005) will be analysed. That article deals with how gender, age and type of educational institution influence teacher’s knowledge about different technological resources. What is more, the discussions sections will be described and analyzed in detail.
According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), the discussions section is written after the results section, and it focuses on interpreting the findings obtained in the results section. In the first paragraph, the authors state that primary and secondary teachers lack basic knowledge to work with information technology.
This section describes what has been found using present tenses, such as “Los resultados obtenidos en el estudio nos muestran que el conocimiento que tiene el prefesorado de los recursos tecnológicos, es un conocimiento limitado…” (Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo & Gastaldo, 2005). Present tenses have been used in order to emphasize the fact that this analyse deals with what is actually happening at the time of the research.
The conclusion is written together with the discussions sections. In this particular paper, the authors have asserted that the problem has not been solved. Teachers lack the information tools needed to apply ICT in their classes. Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo and Gastaldo (2005) have claimed that “…los esfuerzos formativos llevados a cabo en relación con TIC todavía no son suficientes…”.
Although serious academic writing avoids concluding phrases such as in conclusion, as a conclusion or its equivalents (Pintos & Crimi, 2010), this article does use this kind of signalling. The conclusion is stated as follows: “Para concluir, este estudio nos permite vislumbrar que los esfuerzos formativos llevados a cabo en relación con las TIC todavía no son suficientes…” (Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo & Gastaldo, 2005).
What actions are to be done together with the authors’ recommendations are specified at the end of the discussions section. It is assumed that in order to incorporate ICT in the classes, teachers should be taught how to work with these new tools. Educators should undergo appropriate formative actions.
This educational as well as technological paper does provide the researchers reasons for the data patterns turning out the way they did (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). The results section indicates that the analyzed teachers are not computer-literate at all, and the discussions section not interprets only those facts, but it also provides readers with some recommendations to grow as better professionals.
References
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The Research Article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Throughout this paper, an article written by Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo, and Gastaldo (2005) will be analysed. That article deals with how gender, age and type of educational institution influence teacher’s knowledge about different technological resources. What is more, the discussions sections will be described and analyzed in detail.
According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), the discussions section is written after the results section, and it focuses on interpreting the findings obtained in the results section. In the first paragraph, the authors state that primary and secondary teachers lack basic knowledge to work with information technology.
This section describes what has been found using present tenses, such as “Los resultados obtenidos en el estudio nos muestran que el conocimiento que tiene el prefesorado de los recursos tecnológicos, es un conocimiento limitado…” (Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo & Gastaldo, 2005). Present tenses have been used in order to emphasize the fact that this analyse deals with what is actually happening at the time of the research.
The conclusion is written together with the discussions sections. In this particular paper, the authors have asserted that the problem has not been solved. Teachers lack the information tools needed to apply ICT in their classes. Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo and Gastaldo (2005) have claimed that “…los esfuerzos formativos llevados a cabo en relación con TIC todavía no son suficientes…”.
Although serious academic writing avoids concluding phrases such as in conclusion, as a conclusion or its equivalents (Pintos & Crimi, 2010), this article does use this kind of signalling. The conclusion is stated as follows: “Para concluir, este estudio nos permite vislumbrar que los esfuerzos formativos llevados a cabo en relación con las TIC todavía no son suficientes…” (Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo & Gastaldo, 2005).
What actions are to be done together with the authors’ recommendations are specified at the end of the discussions section. It is assumed that in order to incorporate ICT in the classes, teachers should be taught how to work with these new tools. Educators should undergo appropriate formative actions.
This educational as well as technological paper does provide the researchers reasons for the data patterns turning out the way they did (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). The results section indicates that the analyzed teachers are not computer-literate at all, and the discussions section not interprets only those facts, but it also provides readers with some recommendations to grow as better professionals.
References
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The Research Article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
viernes, 9 de julio de 2010
Writing academic abstracts to summarize Research Articles
Research articles (RAs) consist of introductions, methods, results, discussions as well as conclusions sections. These articles are also composed of abstracts, which are formal summaries of the main papers. In order to write abstracts academically, researchers need to meet some requirements.
However, not all the abstracts share the same characteristics. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), there are four types of abstracts: informative, indicative, unstructured and structured. Each type has its own features that authors need to take into account to write appropriately.
Along this present paper, four abstracts will be analysed and compared. Although these papers belong to the field of medicine, they do not have the same characteristics. Therefore, their structure, classification as well as linguistic characteristics will be compared in order to find out not only similarities but also differences.
The first analysed RA deals with the use of velanfaxine and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death (Martínez, Assimes, Mines, Dell’Aniello & Suissa, 2010). This is an informative abstract which is heavy on data, looks at the past and describes what the researchers did. For instance, one of the uses of the past tense could be “the use of velanfaxine was not associated with an excess risk of sudden death or near death…” (Martínez et al., 2010, p. 1).
This abstract is structured since it contains bolded headings which identify the main sections of the article. The headings stated by the researchers are named objective, design, setting, participants, results as well as conclusions, and they are summaries of the main sections in the RA.
The objective section states the main purpose of the research and it is placed in order to inform the audience. The design section clarifies what type of study is. The setting section identifies the place where the research took place. The participants section includes all the people who have undergone analysis. The results section describes the main findings and it appears to be as objective as possible. The last section is called conclusions and it aims at interpreting the results of the research.
As regards linguistics features, past tenses together with impersonal passives are used at the most. For instance, Martínez et al. (2010) claimed that “207384 participants were followed-up for an average of 3.3 years” (p. 1). According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), conclusions tend to be written in present. However, this abstract contains a conclusion written in past instead of present in order to refer to this particular research.
The second abstract is similar to the previous paper as regards structure. It deals with non-invasive cardiac stress testing before non-cardiac surgery (Wijeysundera et al., 2010). It is also an informative and structured abstract. However, it contains two more headings named interventions and main outcome measures which add more specific information.
In the objective section, Wijeysundera et al. (2010) stated the main purpose of carrying out this research. They also made reference to the design as well as the setting of the investigation. The participants section consists of all the people included in the research. These researchers also mentioned the interventions they have taken as well as their main outcome measures.
The last two sections of this RA are called results and conclusions. The results section consists of all the findings of the present study. Besides, the conclusions section interprets these results in order to determine the benefits of the research and who the researchers apply to.
Wijeysundera et al. (2010) used past tenses as well as impersonal passives such as “testing was associated with harm in low risk patients” (p. 1). In contrast to the first abstract, the conclusion is written in present and not in past in order to emphasize further applications.
The third abstract refers to the differences in the knowledge of the technological resources in professors (Almerich et al., 2010). It does not seem to resemble the last two abstract formats since it is indicative and does not include specific results. It describes what the researchers intended to do and looks at the future rather than the past. This abstract is unstructured and consists of one long, unbroken paragraph without headings.
As regards linguistic features, this unstructured abstract includes the use of full sentences and the use of impersonal passives, but it is totally written in the present. Apart from this fact, a section called keywords is added below the abstract and it contains the most important words of the RA.
The last abstract to be analysed makes reference to the treatment of hypertension in patients who are 80 years or older (Beckett et al., 2008). It is informative as well as structured. It is informative since it is heavy on data and looks at what has been found along the research, and it is structured because it is divided into four sections: background, methods, results and conclusions.
The background section states the gap between what is already known about the topic in question and what should have to be investigated. The methods section includes how the authors carried out the research. The results section consists of the differences between the active-treatment group and the placebo group. The last section is called conclusions and it interprets the results using hedgings such as “the results provide evidence that...” (Beckett et al., 2008, p. 1).
As the other abstracts do, this summary uses full sentences and impersonal passives such as “fewer serious adverse events were reported in the active-treatment group” (Beckett et al., 2008, p. 1). As for the tense usage, the conclusion is written in present, reflecting further application to other contexts.
The four abstracts belong to the field of medicine and they seem to be concise and objective. Although they do not share the same characteristics, they appear to transmit information appropriately and successfully. According to this preliminary analysis, the four abstracts seem to describe the main texts of the Research Articles in a clear and neat way.
References
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Beckett, N. S., Peters, R., Astrid, E. F., Staessen, J.A., Liu, L., Dumitrascu, D., et al. Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. The New England Journal of Medicine 358 (18), 1887/1898. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5754
Martínez, C., Assimes, T.L., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2010). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: A nested case-control study. BMJ, 340 (c249), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c249
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 4: Research Articles: abstracts. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved from May 22, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4693
Wijeysundera, D.N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R.F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J.E., & Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: Population based cohort study. BMJ, 340 (b5526), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b5526
However, not all the abstracts share the same characteristics. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), there are four types of abstracts: informative, indicative, unstructured and structured. Each type has its own features that authors need to take into account to write appropriately.
Along this present paper, four abstracts will be analysed and compared. Although these papers belong to the field of medicine, they do not have the same characteristics. Therefore, their structure, classification as well as linguistic characteristics will be compared in order to find out not only similarities but also differences.
The first analysed RA deals with the use of velanfaxine and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death (Martínez, Assimes, Mines, Dell’Aniello & Suissa, 2010). This is an informative abstract which is heavy on data, looks at the past and describes what the researchers did. For instance, one of the uses of the past tense could be “the use of velanfaxine was not associated with an excess risk of sudden death or near death…” (Martínez et al., 2010, p. 1).
This abstract is structured since it contains bolded headings which identify the main sections of the article. The headings stated by the researchers are named objective, design, setting, participants, results as well as conclusions, and they are summaries of the main sections in the RA.
The objective section states the main purpose of the research and it is placed in order to inform the audience. The design section clarifies what type of study is. The setting section identifies the place where the research took place. The participants section includes all the people who have undergone analysis. The results section describes the main findings and it appears to be as objective as possible. The last section is called conclusions and it aims at interpreting the results of the research.
As regards linguistics features, past tenses together with impersonal passives are used at the most. For instance, Martínez et al. (2010) claimed that “207384 participants were followed-up for an average of 3.3 years” (p. 1). According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), conclusions tend to be written in present. However, this abstract contains a conclusion written in past instead of present in order to refer to this particular research.
The second abstract is similar to the previous paper as regards structure. It deals with non-invasive cardiac stress testing before non-cardiac surgery (Wijeysundera et al., 2010). It is also an informative and structured abstract. However, it contains two more headings named interventions and main outcome measures which add more specific information.
In the objective section, Wijeysundera et al. (2010) stated the main purpose of carrying out this research. They also made reference to the design as well as the setting of the investigation. The participants section consists of all the people included in the research. These researchers also mentioned the interventions they have taken as well as their main outcome measures.
The last two sections of this RA are called results and conclusions. The results section consists of all the findings of the present study. Besides, the conclusions section interprets these results in order to determine the benefits of the research and who the researchers apply to.
Wijeysundera et al. (2010) used past tenses as well as impersonal passives such as “testing was associated with harm in low risk patients” (p. 1). In contrast to the first abstract, the conclusion is written in present and not in past in order to emphasize further applications.
The third abstract refers to the differences in the knowledge of the technological resources in professors (Almerich et al., 2010). It does not seem to resemble the last two abstract formats since it is indicative and does not include specific results. It describes what the researchers intended to do and looks at the future rather than the past. This abstract is unstructured and consists of one long, unbroken paragraph without headings.
As regards linguistic features, this unstructured abstract includes the use of full sentences and the use of impersonal passives, but it is totally written in the present. Apart from this fact, a section called keywords is added below the abstract and it contains the most important words of the RA.
The last abstract to be analysed makes reference to the treatment of hypertension in patients who are 80 years or older (Beckett et al., 2008). It is informative as well as structured. It is informative since it is heavy on data and looks at what has been found along the research, and it is structured because it is divided into four sections: background, methods, results and conclusions.
The background section states the gap between what is already known about the topic in question and what should have to be investigated. The methods section includes how the authors carried out the research. The results section consists of the differences between the active-treatment group and the placebo group. The last section is called conclusions and it interprets the results using hedgings such as “the results provide evidence that...” (Beckett et al., 2008, p. 1).
As the other abstracts do, this summary uses full sentences and impersonal passives such as “fewer serious adverse events were reported in the active-treatment group” (Beckett et al., 2008, p. 1). As for the tense usage, the conclusion is written in present, reflecting further application to other contexts.
The four abstracts belong to the field of medicine and they seem to be concise and objective. Although they do not share the same characteristics, they appear to transmit information appropriately and successfully. According to this preliminary analysis, the four abstracts seem to describe the main texts of the Research Articles in a clear and neat way.
References
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Beckett, N. S., Peters, R., Astrid, E. F., Staessen, J.A., Liu, L., Dumitrascu, D., et al. Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. The New England Journal of Medicine 358 (18), 1887/1898. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5754
Martínez, C., Assimes, T.L., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2010). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: A nested case-control study. BMJ, 340 (c249), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c249
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 4: Research Articles: abstracts. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved from May 22, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4693
Wijeysundera, D.N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R.F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J.E., & Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: Population based cohort study. BMJ, 340 (b5526), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b5526
How to include sections in a Research Article
In order to write a research article, writers need to include not only the introduction and methods sections, but also the results, discussion and conclusions sections. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), results and discussion sections tend to be descriptive in nature. The main difference is that the results section presents the main findings of the research, whereas the discussion section interprets meanings.
However, these central requirements are not met in the same way, because they have been written following different conventions. An educational paper could follow the American Psychological Association (APA) rules, though a medicine article may be written following the Vancouver system since it establishes the standards required for the field of medicine.
Along this present article, a comparative analysis of two articles will be carried. One of the papers belongs to the field of education and the other to the field of medicine. Precisely, their results, discussions and conclusions sections will be analyzed in detail. They will be compared and contrasted following APA conventions.
The results section should be objective, since it should present only the findings of the research. The article on the educational field presents data divided among several subheadings such as journal popularity, journal importance, journal prestige and overall ranking (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009). On the contrary, the medicine article contains two subtitles named preliminary analysis and changes in depression and health (Bessiére et al., 2010).
In both articles, the simple past tense is used since the outcomes that are related to the gaps of the paper are described. An example of this issue could be “experimental action with in-links data returned valuation fluctuations of up to 10 % over a 48-hour period…” (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009, p.6). Another sample in the medicine paper is “those who were more depressed at the time of the first questionnaire were more likely to use the internet for escape and to obtain health resources…” (Preliminary analysis, ¶ 3).
Results’ data was not only summarized by the use of text, but also tables were taken into account. In both articles, tables were used to state specific data obtained along the research. Tables were added to present a large amount of information in a reduced and clarified space. If authors make use of tables, they could present a large proportion of information in a small amount of space.
The educational article contains six tables which are numbered as table 1, table 2 up to table 6. Each table has an individual title which is italized and presented with each word capitalized (with the exception of and, of, for, etc) (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). “Journal Rankings by Editors’ Perception of Prestige” (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009) is a proper example of this issue.
The medicine article has four tables and they are also numbered including the word table and its number. All the tables contain individual titles, though they are not italized and word-capitalized. One example could be “Predicting later depression from prior uses of the internet, controlling for demographics and earlier levels of depression” (Bessiére et al., 2010).
According to the American Psychological Association (2007), vertical lines should not be used in tables, only horizontal lines can be included to separate information and make it clearer for the readers (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). As the articles analyzed do not contain horizontal lines, they tend to respect APA rules. Besides, all the information presented in the tables is also referenced in the text of the paper.
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) indicate specific notes using lowercase letters below the tables. These notes are probably included to make a particular item in the table easier to be understood. Readers may use notes to understand troublesome data within the article. The medicine article does not contain notes to clarify meanings, but a proper title to indicate what the table consists of.
The discussion section is designed to interpret the data obtained by research. It interprets the outcomes (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). The educational article does not include the conclusions together with the discussion section. On the contrary, the medicine article does not present the conclusion section within the discussions. In fact, the conclusion is a subtitle of the discussions’ section, as a part of the interpretation of the results.
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) expand the information presented in the results section. Data is interpreted and analyzed in detail, using the present tenses. One example of this issue is the following: “The 90th percentile contains five journals, each with over 4.85 % share of all CML journal links” (p.13).
In order to describe possibility and advice, the modals may, will and should need to be included. The medicine article makes use of modals in a higher proportion than the educational article. These modals tend to be chosen in order to express probability. An example of the use of modals is the next reference: “Another possible source of depression may come about when people use online health support groups” (Discussion, ¶ 3).
The open sentence of the medicine paper appears to state the goals of the study in order to remind the reader of the aim of the research. On the contrary, the educational article divides the information using subtitles such as journal importance. These subtitles are the same that those included in the results’ section.
In both cases, the limitations of the study are included above the conclusions section. Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) stated the limitations as another section following the results section. However, Bessiére et al. (2010) presented the limitations of the study together with the results section.
The conclusion section restates the main points of the article. This section also suggests why the paper was worth reading. The recommendations are also included in this section. For instance, Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) suggested “We hope this study will encourage like-minded scholars to design and publish rigorous studies…” (p.15).
Along this paper, the results, discussions and conclusions sections were analyzed and compared using two research articles. Both papers present data in an organized way, respecting the order and presentation of the above sections. In general, both articles seem to respect academic conventions, though the educational papers appear to follow APA rules and the medicine paper the Vancouver system.
References
Bessière, K. et al. (2010). Effects of Internet Use on Health and Depression: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12 (1).
Elbeck, M., & Mandernach, B. J. (2009). Journals for Computer- Mediated Learning: Publications for Computer of Value for the Outline Educator. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (3).
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: The Research Article: results, discussions, and conclusions. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4692
However, these central requirements are not met in the same way, because they have been written following different conventions. An educational paper could follow the American Psychological Association (APA) rules, though a medicine article may be written following the Vancouver system since it establishes the standards required for the field of medicine.
Along this present article, a comparative analysis of two articles will be carried. One of the papers belongs to the field of education and the other to the field of medicine. Precisely, their results, discussions and conclusions sections will be analyzed in detail. They will be compared and contrasted following APA conventions.
The results section should be objective, since it should present only the findings of the research. The article on the educational field presents data divided among several subheadings such as journal popularity, journal importance, journal prestige and overall ranking (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009). On the contrary, the medicine article contains two subtitles named preliminary analysis and changes in depression and health (Bessiére et al., 2010).
In both articles, the simple past tense is used since the outcomes that are related to the gaps of the paper are described. An example of this issue could be “experimental action with in-links data returned valuation fluctuations of up to 10 % over a 48-hour period…” (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009, p.6). Another sample in the medicine paper is “those who were more depressed at the time of the first questionnaire were more likely to use the internet for escape and to obtain health resources…” (Preliminary analysis, ¶ 3).
Results’ data was not only summarized by the use of text, but also tables were taken into account. In both articles, tables were used to state specific data obtained along the research. Tables were added to present a large amount of information in a reduced and clarified space. If authors make use of tables, they could present a large proportion of information in a small amount of space.
The educational article contains six tables which are numbered as table 1, table 2 up to table 6. Each table has an individual title which is italized and presented with each word capitalized (with the exception of and, of, for, etc) (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). “Journal Rankings by Editors’ Perception of Prestige” (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009) is a proper example of this issue.
The medicine article has four tables and they are also numbered including the word table and its number. All the tables contain individual titles, though they are not italized and word-capitalized. One example could be “Predicting later depression from prior uses of the internet, controlling for demographics and earlier levels of depression” (Bessiére et al., 2010).
According to the American Psychological Association (2007), vertical lines should not be used in tables, only horizontal lines can be included to separate information and make it clearer for the readers (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). As the articles analyzed do not contain horizontal lines, they tend to respect APA rules. Besides, all the information presented in the tables is also referenced in the text of the paper.
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) indicate specific notes using lowercase letters below the tables. These notes are probably included to make a particular item in the table easier to be understood. Readers may use notes to understand troublesome data within the article. The medicine article does not contain notes to clarify meanings, but a proper title to indicate what the table consists of.
The discussion section is designed to interpret the data obtained by research. It interprets the outcomes (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). The educational article does not include the conclusions together with the discussion section. On the contrary, the medicine article does not present the conclusion section within the discussions. In fact, the conclusion is a subtitle of the discussions’ section, as a part of the interpretation of the results.
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) expand the information presented in the results section. Data is interpreted and analyzed in detail, using the present tenses. One example of this issue is the following: “The 90th percentile contains five journals, each with over 4.85 % share of all CML journal links” (p.13).
In order to describe possibility and advice, the modals may, will and should need to be included. The medicine article makes use of modals in a higher proportion than the educational article. These modals tend to be chosen in order to express probability. An example of the use of modals is the next reference: “Another possible source of depression may come about when people use online health support groups” (Discussion, ¶ 3).
The open sentence of the medicine paper appears to state the goals of the study in order to remind the reader of the aim of the research. On the contrary, the educational article divides the information using subtitles such as journal importance. These subtitles are the same that those included in the results’ section.
In both cases, the limitations of the study are included above the conclusions section. Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) stated the limitations as another section following the results section. However, Bessiére et al. (2010) presented the limitations of the study together with the results section.
The conclusion section restates the main points of the article. This section also suggests why the paper was worth reading. The recommendations are also included in this section. For instance, Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) suggested “We hope this study will encourage like-minded scholars to design and publish rigorous studies…” (p.15).
Along this paper, the results, discussions and conclusions sections were analyzed and compared using two research articles. Both papers present data in an organized way, respecting the order and presentation of the above sections. In general, both articles seem to respect academic conventions, though the educational papers appear to follow APA rules and the medicine paper the Vancouver system.
References
Bessière, K. et al. (2010). Effects of Internet Use on Health and Depression: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12 (1).
Elbeck, M., & Mandernach, B. J. (2009). Journals for Computer- Mediated Learning: Publications for Computer of Value for the Outline Educator. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (3).
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: The Research Article: results, discussions, and conclusions. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4692
Academic requirements to write Research Articles
Writing academically has its own requirements. Research articles (RA) are composed of several parts: title, abstract, acknowledgements, introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussions, recommendations, references, and appendixes (Pintos & Crimi, 2010).
Along this article, the introductions’ and literature reviews’ structures as well as the methods sections will be analyzed and compared using two research articles: one on the field of medicine (Bessière et al., 2010), and the other on the field of education (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009).
In Bessière et al.’s article (2010) as well as in Elbeck and Mandernach’s article (2009), the introductions are included after the abstract. Each introduction contains three moves: creating a research space, establishing a niche, and occupying the niche. Writers run research, then they give the reasons for the study, and they occupy the gap they found in the second step (Pintos & Crimi, 2010).
As regards the literature reviews, they are included within the introductions. Bessière et al.’s article (2010) offers complete background information and informs the readers of the benefits and harms using the internet can cause. This article acknowledges the authors by writing a number between brackets. Each number corresponds to an author which is cited in the reference list, meeting the Vancouver system’s requirements.
Elbeck and Mandernach’s article (2009) presents some theoretical background in the introduction, but authors are not mentioned until the subsection called journal ranking, within the introduction. This research article acknowledges the authors using in-text citations as well as references.
After analysing the literature review, it is necessary to establish the niche (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). Authors need to raise questions about the gap they have found after they set the research territory. In both research articles, this move is started with negative openings, such as although and nonetheless, with the purpose of stating a gap found in the area.
Bessière et al. (2010) established the niche when they state that “although some writers have warned about poor quality medical information online [8] and patients’ inability to distinguish poor advice from good advice [10], there are few reports of serious harm [15].” (Health resources online, ¶ 2).
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) claim that “nonetheless, little is scientifically known about the consistency of these publications and their relative worth to online teachers, learners, and scholars. Unlike established academic disciplines, there is neither a definite list nor a value ranking of such journals” (Introduction, ¶ 1).
The third step is called occupying the niche (Pintos & Crimi, 2010) and it describes what the present research is about. In the medicine paper (2010), the niche is occupied at the beginning of the subsection called current study and it starts as “The purpose of the current research was to determine whether using the Internet for health purposes is beneficial or harmful to physical and psychological well-being. We were also interested in whether this association would be moderated by people's health or care-giving status” (Current study, ¶ 1).
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) occupy the niche by stating that “The purposes of this study are outlined as follows: (a) define the scope of computer-mediated learning; (b) identify scholarly journals devoted to computer-mediated learning; and (c) rank the journals independently and collectively based upon popularity, importance, and prestige” (Introduction, ¶ 2).
As regards the Methods’ section, the medicine article (2010) comprises the word methods on the left side, and the education paper (2009) includes it at the centre. The Methods’ section in the former article is divided into two subsections: procedure and participants as well as measures. The latter article contains three subtitles: defining the scope of investigation, journals devoted to CML (Computer-mediated learning) as well as value ranking journals.
As a conclusion, both research articles seem to follow academic writing requirements. Although authors are cited differently, they are acknowledged within the articles as well as in the references. The introductions tend to be properly labelled and they include the three moves: territory, gap and purpose. Finally, the authors outlined sources of data, the collection of data as well as the analysis of data in the methods’ sections.
References
Bessière, K. et al. (2010). Effects of Internet Use on Health and Depression: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12 (1).
Elbeck, M., & Mandernach, B. J. (2009). Journals for Computer- Mediated Learning: Publications for Computer of Value for the Outline Educator. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (3).
Pintos, V., and Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The Research Article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 10, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4691
Along this article, the introductions’ and literature reviews’ structures as well as the methods sections will be analyzed and compared using two research articles: one on the field of medicine (Bessière et al., 2010), and the other on the field of education (Elbeck & Mandernach, 2009).
In Bessière et al.’s article (2010) as well as in Elbeck and Mandernach’s article (2009), the introductions are included after the abstract. Each introduction contains three moves: creating a research space, establishing a niche, and occupying the niche. Writers run research, then they give the reasons for the study, and they occupy the gap they found in the second step (Pintos & Crimi, 2010).
As regards the literature reviews, they are included within the introductions. Bessière et al.’s article (2010) offers complete background information and informs the readers of the benefits and harms using the internet can cause. This article acknowledges the authors by writing a number between brackets. Each number corresponds to an author which is cited in the reference list, meeting the Vancouver system’s requirements.
Elbeck and Mandernach’s article (2009) presents some theoretical background in the introduction, but authors are not mentioned until the subsection called journal ranking, within the introduction. This research article acknowledges the authors using in-text citations as well as references.
After analysing the literature review, it is necessary to establish the niche (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). Authors need to raise questions about the gap they have found after they set the research territory. In both research articles, this move is started with negative openings, such as although and nonetheless, with the purpose of stating a gap found in the area.
Bessière et al. (2010) established the niche when they state that “although some writers have warned about poor quality medical information online [8] and patients’ inability to distinguish poor advice from good advice [10], there are few reports of serious harm [15].” (Health resources online, ¶ 2).
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) claim that “nonetheless, little is scientifically known about the consistency of these publications and their relative worth to online teachers, learners, and scholars. Unlike established academic disciplines, there is neither a definite list nor a value ranking of such journals” (Introduction, ¶ 1).
The third step is called occupying the niche (Pintos & Crimi, 2010) and it describes what the present research is about. In the medicine paper (2010), the niche is occupied at the beginning of the subsection called current study and it starts as “The purpose of the current research was to determine whether using the Internet for health purposes is beneficial or harmful to physical and psychological well-being. We were also interested in whether this association would be moderated by people's health or care-giving status” (Current study, ¶ 1).
Elbeck and Mandernach (2009) occupy the niche by stating that “The purposes of this study are outlined as follows: (a) define the scope of computer-mediated learning; (b) identify scholarly journals devoted to computer-mediated learning; and (c) rank the journals independently and collectively based upon popularity, importance, and prestige” (Introduction, ¶ 2).
As regards the Methods’ section, the medicine article (2010) comprises the word methods on the left side, and the education paper (2009) includes it at the centre. The Methods’ section in the former article is divided into two subsections: procedure and participants as well as measures. The latter article contains three subtitles: defining the scope of investigation, journals devoted to CML (Computer-mediated learning) as well as value ranking journals.
As a conclusion, both research articles seem to follow academic writing requirements. Although authors are cited differently, they are acknowledged within the articles as well as in the references. The introductions tend to be properly labelled and they include the three moves: territory, gap and purpose. Finally, the authors outlined sources of data, the collection of data as well as the analysis of data in the methods’ sections.
References
Bessière, K. et al. (2010). Effects of Internet Use on Health and Depression: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12 (1).
Elbeck, M., & Mandernach, B. J. (2009). Journals for Computer- Mediated Learning: Publications for Computer of Value for the Outline Educator. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (3).
Pintos, V., and Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The Research Article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved April 10, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=4691
miércoles, 20 de enero de 2010
A critique of Walsh’s (1996) Modern World History
A critique of Walsh’s (1996) Modern World History
The book Modern World History written by Walsh (1996) describes a series of historical and social events that took place mostly in Europe and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) during the nineteenth century. This book is divided into four sections: the first is called the First World War; the second deals with the USSR, Germany and the USA between the wars; cooperation and conflict (1919-1945) is the third one; and international relations (1945-1990) take part of the fourth section.
In the first place, the causes of the First World War have been presented as well as a reflection on how Britain was affected by this war is revealed. Furthermore, the peace treaties after the First World War are also described. Taking into account the second section, the political and social situations in the USSR (1905-1941), in Germany (1918-1945) and in the USA (1919-1941) are explained and supported with different sources, such as pictures, cartoon comics or graphs.
The League of Nations’ successes and failures are stated in the third section called cooperation and conflict. Furthermore, the causes of the Second World War are also presented. The international relations are mentioned in the last section. Therefore, the beginnings of the Cold War and the Cold War in itself are examined. The roles of China and the Red Empire between the 1940s and the years 1989 and 1990 are also described.
In this preliminary interesting book, not only does Walsh (1996) present factual information, but also shows significant sources. For instance, maps, real pictures, cartoon comics as well as graphs are used to illustrate the book. The use of different and varied tasks is remarkable throughout this piece of writing. All in all, Modern World History (Walsh, 1996) is a useful book either for people who are studying history or for those who are interested in reading modern world history.
Reference
Walsh, B. (1996). Modern world history. London: John Murray Ltd.
The book Modern World History written by Walsh (1996) describes a series of historical and social events that took place mostly in Europe and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) during the nineteenth century. This book is divided into four sections: the first is called the First World War; the second deals with the USSR, Germany and the USA between the wars; cooperation and conflict (1919-1945) is the third one; and international relations (1945-1990) take part of the fourth section.
In the first place, the causes of the First World War have been presented as well as a reflection on how Britain was affected by this war is revealed. Furthermore, the peace treaties after the First World War are also described. Taking into account the second section, the political and social situations in the USSR (1905-1941), in Germany (1918-1945) and in the USA (1919-1941) are explained and supported with different sources, such as pictures, cartoon comics or graphs.
The League of Nations’ successes and failures are stated in the third section called cooperation and conflict. Furthermore, the causes of the Second World War are also presented. The international relations are mentioned in the last section. Therefore, the beginnings of the Cold War and the Cold War in itself are examined. The roles of China and the Red Empire between the 1940s and the years 1989 and 1990 are also described.
In this preliminary interesting book, not only does Walsh (1996) present factual information, but also shows significant sources. For instance, maps, real pictures, cartoon comics as well as graphs are used to illustrate the book. The use of different and varied tasks is remarkable throughout this piece of writing. All in all, Modern World History (Walsh, 1996) is a useful book either for people who are studying history or for those who are interested in reading modern world history.
Reference
Walsh, B. (1996). Modern world history. London: John Murray Ltd.
A descriptive-informative annotated bibliography
A descriptive-informative annotated bibliography
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
The meanings of the words critical and incident as well as a definition of the concept of critical incident technique are provided in Flanagan’s (1954) article. A description of this technique’s backgrounds and early developments is taken into account. Five steps are included in the critical incident technique procedure: general aims, plans and specifications, collecting the data, analyzing the information, and interpreting and reporting. This technique is not considered as a flexible set of principles, but it is adapted to meet each specific situation. Lastly, according to Flanagan (1954), the critical incidents provide solutions only when they are applied to different areas: measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, among others.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 5, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
The meanings of the words critical and incident as well as a definition of the concept of critical incident technique are provided in Flanagan’s (1954) article. A description of this technique’s backgrounds and early developments is taken into account. Five steps are included in the critical incident technique procedure: general aims, plans and specifications, collecting the data, analyzing the information, and interpreting and reporting. This technique is not considered as a flexible set of principles, but it is adapted to meet each specific situation. Lastly, according to Flanagan (1954), the critical incidents provide solutions only when they are applied to different areas: measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, among others.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September, 5, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Useful requirements to write academically
Useful requirements to write academically
Readers will have the opportunity to analyze what is needed to write academically. Therefore, they will be able to find four aspects related to academic writing: the use of quotations, omissions, and insertions of words or letters; introductory phrases and their structure; in-text citations and their most common structures; and the use of reporting verbs (Pintos, 2008).
In the first place, omissions are used in writing to show that a particular part on the original text has been omitted. When parts of a sentence, no more than a sentence, are edited out, three full stops are used in place of the omitted part. For example, “writing should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities” (Myles, 2002, p.3).
Furthermore, if at least one paragraph is omitted, another paragraph is written, then four full stops in the following margin are added, and the other paragraph on the margin is written below. Moreover, if a whole sentence is edited out, the authors make the text and they use three full stops between brackets, such as text (…) (Pintos, 2008).
Apart from omitting words, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs in a text, these last ones could be inserted into the original quotation. Therefore, whenever a particular author’s words are quoted, it is necessary to write not only the surname and the year of publication, but also the page in which the original quotation was found (Pintos, 2008).
One example of both, quotation and insertion is the following one: “According to McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because: [L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and other do not” (Myles, 2002, p. 7).
According to Pintos (2008), there are many ways of writing introductory phrases. They can be included as In X’s (year of publication) article, X’s (year of publication) paper on … discusses, according to X (year of publication), or X (year of publication) states that… . In Myles’ (2002) article, there are some examples, such as Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze… (p. 3), Schumann (1998) argues that … (p. 7), or According to Ellis (1985), … (p. 9).
Additionally, whenever authors cite other authors’ works, they have to use in-text citations. This is done by using the reporting verbs in the past tense or the present perfect tense, with the purpose of signaling phrases described in earlier articles. If the author summarizes or paraphrases other writer’s work, it is necessary to include the author’s surname and the year of publication.
However, if the author quotes the actual words of the former one, it is necessary to include the page where it was found (Pintos, 2008). In Myles’ (2002) article, there are many examples of in-text citations: “Knowing how to write a summary or analysis in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things in English (Kern, 2000)”, “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose … (p. 354)”.
As regards the use of reporting verbs, there are many different ones in the analyzed text. These verbs are used in order not to repeat the way in-text citations are written. For instance, the verbs focus on, analyze, propose, stress, argue, point out, and mention are used in Myles’ (2002) article.
On balance, academic writing is a useful tool to express thoughts or opinions in academic contexts. However, there are some requirements that writers need to follow in order to write within those contexts. Apart from remembering the specific formal elements which lead to proficiency, the writer has to persuade the reader to analyze what was written. In short, the main purpose of writing academically could be to have a voice to be heard.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen’s University. Retrieved September, 12, 2008, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESI-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Readers will have the opportunity to analyze what is needed to write academically. Therefore, they will be able to find four aspects related to academic writing: the use of quotations, omissions, and insertions of words or letters; introductory phrases and their structure; in-text citations and their most common structures; and the use of reporting verbs (Pintos, 2008).
In the first place, omissions are used in writing to show that a particular part on the original text has been omitted. When parts of a sentence, no more than a sentence, are edited out, three full stops are used in place of the omitted part. For example, “writing should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities” (Myles, 2002, p.3).
Furthermore, if at least one paragraph is omitted, another paragraph is written, then four full stops in the following margin are added, and the other paragraph on the margin is written below. Moreover, if a whole sentence is edited out, the authors make the text and they use three full stops between brackets, such as text (…) (Pintos, 2008).
Apart from omitting words, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs in a text, these last ones could be inserted into the original quotation. Therefore, whenever a particular author’s words are quoted, it is necessary to write not only the surname and the year of publication, but also the page in which the original quotation was found (Pintos, 2008).
One example of both, quotation and insertion is the following one: “According to McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because: [L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and other do not” (Myles, 2002, p. 7).
According to Pintos (2008), there are many ways of writing introductory phrases. They can be included as In X’s (year of publication) article, X’s (year of publication) paper on … discusses, according to X (year of publication), or X (year of publication) states that… . In Myles’ (2002) article, there are some examples, such as Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze… (p. 3), Schumann (1998) argues that … (p. 7), or According to Ellis (1985), … (p. 9).
Additionally, whenever authors cite other authors’ works, they have to use in-text citations. This is done by using the reporting verbs in the past tense or the present perfect tense, with the purpose of signaling phrases described in earlier articles. If the author summarizes or paraphrases other writer’s work, it is necessary to include the author’s surname and the year of publication.
However, if the author quotes the actual words of the former one, it is necessary to include the page where it was found (Pintos, 2008). In Myles’ (2002) article, there are many examples of in-text citations: “Knowing how to write a summary or analysis in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things in English (Kern, 2000)”, “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose … (p. 354)”.
As regards the use of reporting verbs, there are many different ones in the analyzed text. These verbs are used in order not to repeat the way in-text citations are written. For instance, the verbs focus on, analyze, propose, stress, argue, point out, and mention are used in Myles’ (2002) article.
On balance, academic writing is a useful tool to express thoughts or opinions in academic contexts. However, there are some requirements that writers need to follow in order to write within those contexts. Apart from remembering the specific formal elements which lead to proficiency, the writer has to persuade the reader to analyze what was written. In short, the main purpose of writing academically could be to have a voice to be heard.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen’s University. Retrieved September, 12, 2008, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESI-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Writing academically
Writing academically
The concept of summary writing will be explained, specifically in academic contexts. Moreover, a student’s summary in reference to one of Reid’s books (1994) will be analyzed (Pintos, 2008). The summary’s introduction, body and conclusion will be taken into account, too. Above all, the readers will be able to reflect upon the summary, and they will also be able to consider other summaries.
The introductory phrase of the student’s summary is “Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The body is “However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The conclusion of the summary is “That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20).
As regards the body of the summary, it is brief, precise and quite balanced. Nonetheless, the characteristics clear and balanced would have to be explained in detail. In reference to the conclusion, the author could have separated it from the body of the summary in order to make it more effective, and he could also have restated the main ideas of the material so as to mention them in a briefer way.
The second phrase “The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience” states the purpose of academic writing (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The audience should always be taken into account. In order to connect the different, similar or just leading ideas in the summary, the author has used a certain number of connectors, such as however, in order to, not only….but also, moreover, and that is to say. As regards the body of the paper, it would have been better if the author had clarified what he meant by clear and balanced, or he could have informed what way people could produce a summary which is clear and balanced.
In order to present some examples of summarizing, three paragraphs have been taken into account (Pintos, 2008). According to Pintos (2008), “Academic writing is identified with a number of awkward specific formal elements such as proficiency in language use, style, register, and genre(s) (…)” (p. 6). In order to write in academic contexts, we should achieve proficiency in language use and produce engaging pieces of writing.
Furthermore, Pintos (2008) describes academic writing as “one of the big steps towards advanced literacy; writing in academic settings can be an excellent tool to sharpen thinking skills and to discover new ideas” (p. 7). In order to achieve advanced literacy, learners should be taught to write academically.
Finally, Pintos (2008) concludes that “Academic writing, critical consciousness, and the skills beyond them are not acquired naturally but need to be gained through exemplification, instruction, practice, experience and purpose (…)” (p. 9). Academic writing is acquired naturally, but through learning to write in a meaningful manner.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the use of summaries while writing in academic or non academic contexts. Summarizing is a useful tool because it persuades the readers to read the original source, informs the audience, or just makes the main ideas of a paper more precise and briefer.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
The concept of summary writing will be explained, specifically in academic contexts. Moreover, a student’s summary in reference to one of Reid’s books (1994) will be analyzed (Pintos, 2008). The summary’s introduction, body and conclusion will be taken into account, too. Above all, the readers will be able to reflect upon the summary, and they will also be able to consider other summaries.
The introductory phrase of the student’s summary is “Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The body is “However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The conclusion of the summary is “That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20).
As regards the body of the summary, it is brief, precise and quite balanced. Nonetheless, the characteristics clear and balanced would have to be explained in detail. In reference to the conclusion, the author could have separated it from the body of the summary in order to make it more effective, and he could also have restated the main ideas of the material so as to mention them in a briefer way.
The second phrase “The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience” states the purpose of academic writing (Pintos, 2008, p. 20). The audience should always be taken into account. In order to connect the different, similar or just leading ideas in the summary, the author has used a certain number of connectors, such as however, in order to, not only….but also, moreover, and that is to say. As regards the body of the paper, it would have been better if the author had clarified what he meant by clear and balanced, or he could have informed what way people could produce a summary which is clear and balanced.
In order to present some examples of summarizing, three paragraphs have been taken into account (Pintos, 2008). According to Pintos (2008), “Academic writing is identified with a number of awkward specific formal elements such as proficiency in language use, style, register, and genre(s) (…)” (p. 6). In order to write in academic contexts, we should achieve proficiency in language use and produce engaging pieces of writing.
Furthermore, Pintos (2008) describes academic writing as “one of the big steps towards advanced literacy; writing in academic settings can be an excellent tool to sharpen thinking skills and to discover new ideas” (p. 7). In order to achieve advanced literacy, learners should be taught to write academically.
Finally, Pintos (2008) concludes that “Academic writing, critical consciousness, and the skills beyond them are not acquired naturally but need to be gained through exemplification, instruction, practice, experience and purpose (…)” (p. 9). Academic writing is acquired naturally, but through learning to write in a meaningful manner.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the use of summaries while writing in academic or non academic contexts. Summarizing is a useful tool because it persuades the readers to read the original source, informs the audience, or just makes the main ideas of a paper more precise and briefer.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Steve Jobs’ commencement speech
Steve Jobs’ commencement speech
This summary was done in reference to Steve Jobs’speech (2005) to a group of recent graduates. Firstly, Jobs (2005) stated he attended a typography class which did not have a practical application until he was designing the first computers. Furthermore, Jobs (2005) affirmed he found what he really liked to do early in life: establishing his own company. Finally, Jobs (2005) admitted time did not have to be wasted and he confessed he lived each day as if it was the last. As a conclusion, Jobs (2005) acknowledged people should love what they do to achieve great work.
Reference
Jobs, S. (Producer), & Jobs, S. (Director). (2005). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech [Motion picture]. United States of America: CEO of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios.
This summary was done in reference to Steve Jobs’speech (2005) to a group of recent graduates. Firstly, Jobs (2005) stated he attended a typography class which did not have a practical application until he was designing the first computers. Furthermore, Jobs (2005) affirmed he found what he really liked to do early in life: establishing his own company. Finally, Jobs (2005) admitted time did not have to be wasted and he confessed he lived each day as if it was the last. As a conclusion, Jobs (2005) acknowledged people should love what they do to achieve great work.
Reference
Jobs, S. (Producer), & Jobs, S. (Director). (2005). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech [Motion picture]. United States of America: CEO of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios.
My first journal entry on the use of the critical incidents
My first journal entry on the use of the critical incidents
The Critical Incident Technique is a useful strategy that is used to analyze situations that happen within the classroom as well as reflect upon them. The concept of reflection does not only mean thinking about what it has been done or not, but also trying to look for a possible solution when an unusual situation happens in the classes (Fernández González et al., 2003).
As regards my own teaching experience, one of my students, a ten-year-old boy, seemed to be apathetic in my classes. Therefore, I started to get close to him and I realized that what he needed was affection. I decided to pay more attention to his performance. As a result, he began to feel more interested in the subject and showed enthusiasm for learning English.
Additionally, whenever we are analyzing critical incidents, we need to take into account the following steps: setting the context in which they occur, describing the situation in detail, mentioning the possible causes, and pointing out the possible solutions to the given situation (Fernández González et al., 2003).
For instance, a seventeen-year-old boy handed in a home-made informal letter, and he signed it using one of his partners’ names. I did not realize that both letters look similar until I reached the end of them. I analyzed what could cause this critical incident, and immediately understood that he had cheated the assignment because he had not done it. Finally, I warned him not to do that anymore, and I encouraged him to be more sincere next time.
In conclusion, the use of critical incidents is a process that involves reflection, analyses and action (Fernández González et al., 2003). It allows teachers to look at what it has been done as well as to have the chance to find a solution to the critical incidents. On the whole, this way of working encourages teachers to better the processes of teaching and learning.
Reference
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos de la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
The Critical Incident Technique is a useful strategy that is used to analyze situations that happen within the classroom as well as reflect upon them. The concept of reflection does not only mean thinking about what it has been done or not, but also trying to look for a possible solution when an unusual situation happens in the classes (Fernández González et al., 2003).
As regards my own teaching experience, one of my students, a ten-year-old boy, seemed to be apathetic in my classes. Therefore, I started to get close to him and I realized that what he needed was affection. I decided to pay more attention to his performance. As a result, he began to feel more interested in the subject and showed enthusiasm for learning English.
Additionally, whenever we are analyzing critical incidents, we need to take into account the following steps: setting the context in which they occur, describing the situation in detail, mentioning the possible causes, and pointing out the possible solutions to the given situation (Fernández González et al., 2003).
For instance, a seventeen-year-old boy handed in a home-made informal letter, and he signed it using one of his partners’ names. I did not realize that both letters look similar until I reached the end of them. I analyzed what could cause this critical incident, and immediately understood that he had cheated the assignment because he had not done it. Finally, I warned him not to do that anymore, and I encouraged him to be more sincere next time.
In conclusion, the use of critical incidents is a process that involves reflection, analyses and action (Fernández González et al., 2003). It allows teachers to look at what it has been done as well as to have the chance to find a solution to the critical incidents. On the whole, this way of working encourages teachers to better the processes of teaching and learning.
Reference
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos de la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Reflecting upon the teaching profession
Reflecting upon the teaching profession
Many times teachers believe that there are not useful tools to reflect upon their teaching practices. Nonetheless, along the following paragraphs, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), which is a useful method of teaching thinking, will be explained. Furthermore, many terms related to critical incidents will be defined, and many areas in which CIT could be applied will be analyzed.
According to Flanagan (1954), the Critical Incident Technique is a set of procedures used to collect direct observations of human behavior. They are gathered so as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles. This technique selects the incidents which are relevant as well as those that meet an established criterion.
An incident is an observable human event which is considered complete in itself to allow inferences and predictions to be made about the person in charge of that activity (Flanagan, 1954). In order to be critical, an incident should take place in a situation where its purpose is clear enough to the observer, and where its results are as much as precise as possible.
The word objectivity refers to the manner some independent observers judge the same incident. The Critical Incident Technique does not consist of a set of rules, but of a flexible set of principles that could vary depending on the situation which is about to analyze (Flanagan, 1954). The main idea is that these principles are not totally set before hand.
By general aim is meant a concise statement which takes into account those objectives which most people would agree (Flanagan, 1954). The authorities in each field are in charge of defining the general aims which are obtained with the purpose of reaching an agreement among the participants. If the general aims, while working with CIT are formulated, observers will know what it is necessary to do and not to do. In this way, if they understand what they are expected to accomplish, they will judge the situation successfully.
Whenever a general aim is designed, it is essential to follow some steps. First of all, it is necessary to specify the situation to be observed, such as the conditions, the people, the place and the activities. After the delimitation of the situation, it is convenient to analyze if the observed behavior is relevant or not. The next step is to decide if the critical incident makes a significant contribution to the general aims of the activity. Finally, it is required to select and train the observers who will make and report the judgements (Flanagan, 1954). The more familiar they are with the activity, the better decisions they will make.
Once the general aims have been designed, the data collection phase will take place. It is important to obtain recent events so as to ensure that the incidents represent what actually happens in the real world. There are four procedures used to collect data. One of them is the use of interviews, which requires trained people who could explain to the observers what data should be collected. Another method is the group interview which has been developed in order to lower the cost in time and personnel. The next one is the questionnaire which is needed when the group is mostly large. The last procedure is called the record form, which is done by writing records of the observed incident (Flanagan, 1954).
After taking into account the four procedures used to gather data, the group interview seems to be the most appropriate way of collecting data within the educational field. This procedure is useful because personal contact is always available and explanation on the part of the interviewer is provided to all the members of the observed group. Furthermore, all the members could interact with each other and have a voice to be heard.
According to Flanagan (1954), the data analysis is ultimately used for practical purposes. Therefore, data should be summarized and described as efficiently as possible in order to obtain a reference of what is being done in a proper way and what is not. Critical Incident Technique can be applied to many different and varied areas only if the obtained samples are representative, the judges are well-qualified and the procedures used to observe and gather incidents are accurate.
One of the areas is measures of typical performance, where the emphasis is placed on the preparation of a particular procedure to evaluate the typical performance of people engaged in this activity. The second one is measures of proficiency, where CIT is useful because it allows checking if proficiency along the training course is maintained or not. The third area is training, in which special training programs and materials are developed. Selection and classification is another one, where CIT is also applied to predict performance within a job (Flanagan, 1954).
The Critical Incident Technique could be applied to even more areas, which are going to be described below. To begin with, the job design and purification area, in which it is intended to maximize the effectiveness of performance. The next one is operating procedures, where data is analyzed in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations (Flanagan, 1954).
Another area is called equipment design, in which CIT provides a useful way of collecting a large amount of critical incidents related to the operating experience, and in this way it allows the design of equipments. The last one is motivation and leadership, where CIT is a valuable source for the study of attitudes, in the sense that it does not only contain data on opinions, but also factual data encouraging future choices and decisions (Flanagan, 1954).
As a conclusion, the Critical Incident Technique could be applied to many areas, such as education. It is a useful and effective method of reflective practice. It does not only provide observers with data about the observed situation, but it also helps them to solve practical problems. If the event is properly collected and analyzed, CIT is an effective way of reflecting upon our practices and making decisions about what should be changed or what should remain within our teaching experiences.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Many times teachers believe that there are not useful tools to reflect upon their teaching practices. Nonetheless, along the following paragraphs, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), which is a useful method of teaching thinking, will be explained. Furthermore, many terms related to critical incidents will be defined, and many areas in which CIT could be applied will be analyzed.
According to Flanagan (1954), the Critical Incident Technique is a set of procedures used to collect direct observations of human behavior. They are gathered so as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles. This technique selects the incidents which are relevant as well as those that meet an established criterion.
An incident is an observable human event which is considered complete in itself to allow inferences and predictions to be made about the person in charge of that activity (Flanagan, 1954). In order to be critical, an incident should take place in a situation where its purpose is clear enough to the observer, and where its results are as much as precise as possible.
The word objectivity refers to the manner some independent observers judge the same incident. The Critical Incident Technique does not consist of a set of rules, but of a flexible set of principles that could vary depending on the situation which is about to analyze (Flanagan, 1954). The main idea is that these principles are not totally set before hand.
By general aim is meant a concise statement which takes into account those objectives which most people would agree (Flanagan, 1954). The authorities in each field are in charge of defining the general aims which are obtained with the purpose of reaching an agreement among the participants. If the general aims, while working with CIT are formulated, observers will know what it is necessary to do and not to do. In this way, if they understand what they are expected to accomplish, they will judge the situation successfully.
Whenever a general aim is designed, it is essential to follow some steps. First of all, it is necessary to specify the situation to be observed, such as the conditions, the people, the place and the activities. After the delimitation of the situation, it is convenient to analyze if the observed behavior is relevant or not. The next step is to decide if the critical incident makes a significant contribution to the general aims of the activity. Finally, it is required to select and train the observers who will make and report the judgements (Flanagan, 1954). The more familiar they are with the activity, the better decisions they will make.
Once the general aims have been designed, the data collection phase will take place. It is important to obtain recent events so as to ensure that the incidents represent what actually happens in the real world. There are four procedures used to collect data. One of them is the use of interviews, which requires trained people who could explain to the observers what data should be collected. Another method is the group interview which has been developed in order to lower the cost in time and personnel. The next one is the questionnaire which is needed when the group is mostly large. The last procedure is called the record form, which is done by writing records of the observed incident (Flanagan, 1954).
After taking into account the four procedures used to gather data, the group interview seems to be the most appropriate way of collecting data within the educational field. This procedure is useful because personal contact is always available and explanation on the part of the interviewer is provided to all the members of the observed group. Furthermore, all the members could interact with each other and have a voice to be heard.
According to Flanagan (1954), the data analysis is ultimately used for practical purposes. Therefore, data should be summarized and described as efficiently as possible in order to obtain a reference of what is being done in a proper way and what is not. Critical Incident Technique can be applied to many different and varied areas only if the obtained samples are representative, the judges are well-qualified and the procedures used to observe and gather incidents are accurate.
One of the areas is measures of typical performance, where the emphasis is placed on the preparation of a particular procedure to evaluate the typical performance of people engaged in this activity. The second one is measures of proficiency, where CIT is useful because it allows checking if proficiency along the training course is maintained or not. The third area is training, in which special training programs and materials are developed. Selection and classification is another one, where CIT is also applied to predict performance within a job (Flanagan, 1954).
The Critical Incident Technique could be applied to even more areas, which are going to be described below. To begin with, the job design and purification area, in which it is intended to maximize the effectiveness of performance. The next one is operating procedures, where data is analyzed in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of operations (Flanagan, 1954).
Another area is called equipment design, in which CIT provides a useful way of collecting a large amount of critical incidents related to the operating experience, and in this way it allows the design of equipments. The last one is motivation and leadership, where CIT is a valuable source for the study of attitudes, in the sense that it does not only contain data on opinions, but also factual data encouraging future choices and decisions (Flanagan, 1954).
As a conclusion, the Critical Incident Technique could be applied to many areas, such as education. It is a useful and effective method of reflective practice. It does not only provide observers with data about the observed situation, but it also helps them to solve practical problems. If the event is properly collected and analyzed, CIT is an effective way of reflecting upon our practices and making decisions about what should be changed or what should remain within our teaching experiences.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Reading and writing
Reading and writing
Purpose: To connect the processes of reading and writing.
Thesis: Reading and writing are closely related to each other.
Audience: Readers and writers who are English native speakers or those who are learning it as a second language.
I. Bramki & Williams (1984) strategies (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Jordan (1997) comprehension (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Reading comprehension
2. Vocabulary development
B. Jordan (1997) production (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Writing
II. Martin (1976) types of academic vocabulary (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Research-process vocabulary
B. Vocabulary of analysis
C. Evaluative vocabulary
III. Nutall (1996) requisites (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Sharing the same code
B. Learning to write
C. Writing to learn
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Purpose: To connect the processes of reading and writing.
Thesis: Reading and writing are closely related to each other.
Audience: Readers and writers who are English native speakers or those who are learning it as a second language.
I. Bramki & Williams (1984) strategies (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Jordan (1997) comprehension (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Reading comprehension
2. Vocabulary development
B. Jordan (1997) production (cited in Pintos, 2008)
1. Writing
II. Martin (1976) types of academic vocabulary (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Research-process vocabulary
B. Vocabulary of analysis
C. Evaluative vocabulary
III. Nutall (1996) requisites (cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Sharing the same code
B. Learning to write
C. Writing to learn
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Reading in academic contexts
Reading in academic contexts
Whenever educators teach academic reading, they are expected to choose from a set of approaches, such as the psychological approach, the linguistic approach, the content-oriented approach and the pedagogically-oriented approach (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997). These approaches will be explained in detail.
According to Bloor (1985), the psychological approach takes place when teachers provide students with a piece of writing so as to involve them in the processes of reading. The aim of this activity is to teach and acquire specific vocabulary. Once students have dealt with the given articles, they are asked to put the new set of vocabulary into practice. Students might answer some questions, solve a task related to that vocabulary and many other activities.
In reference to the linguistic approach (Bloor, 1985), students are asked to deal with the words or sentences of a given text in order to solve some grammatical exercises. For instance, if educators are teaching the present perfect tense, they give their students an article not only to work on the specific vocabulary, but also to do some tasks related to the mentioned tense (information-gap activities, questions and answers, etc).
Taking into account the content- oriented approach and its main purpose focused on reading, if teachers provide students with a specific purpose for reading, they will be interested in fulfilling the task they are intended to do (Bloor, 1985). For instance, teachers could give their learners a particular brochure so that they can create their own piece of writing once they have read it. After students have read and analysed the giving brochure, they create their own one.
As regards the pedagogically- oriented approach, the learning theories are essential to motivate students to read. Therefore, students have the opportunity to choose from a given set of materials provided by the teacher. They select what they want to read and work at their own pace. In this way, pupils feel strongly motivated to read because they can read and work on what they really appreciate.
In conclusion, reading should be emphasized in order to develop the ability of writing, because the more we read, the better we write. Once students have been engaged in the process of reading, they will develop their own writing processes. Both processes are closely related to each other.
Reference
Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
Whenever educators teach academic reading, they are expected to choose from a set of approaches, such as the psychological approach, the linguistic approach, the content-oriented approach and the pedagogically-oriented approach (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997). These approaches will be explained in detail.
According to Bloor (1985), the psychological approach takes place when teachers provide students with a piece of writing so as to involve them in the processes of reading. The aim of this activity is to teach and acquire specific vocabulary. Once students have dealt with the given articles, they are asked to put the new set of vocabulary into practice. Students might answer some questions, solve a task related to that vocabulary and many other activities.
In reference to the linguistic approach (Bloor, 1985), students are asked to deal with the words or sentences of a given text in order to solve some grammatical exercises. For instance, if educators are teaching the present perfect tense, they give their students an article not only to work on the specific vocabulary, but also to do some tasks related to the mentioned tense (information-gap activities, questions and answers, etc).
Taking into account the content- oriented approach and its main purpose focused on reading, if teachers provide students with a specific purpose for reading, they will be interested in fulfilling the task they are intended to do (Bloor, 1985). For instance, teachers could give their learners a particular brochure so that they can create their own piece of writing once they have read it. After students have read and analysed the giving brochure, they create their own one.
As regards the pedagogically- oriented approach, the learning theories are essential to motivate students to read. Therefore, students have the opportunity to choose from a given set of materials provided by the teacher. They select what they want to read and work at their own pace. In this way, pupils feel strongly motivated to read because they can read and work on what they really appreciate.
In conclusion, reading should be emphasized in order to develop the ability of writing, because the more we read, the better we write. Once students have been engaged in the process of reading, they will develop their own writing processes. Both processes are closely related to each other.
Reference
Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: CUP.
How to reach student achievement
How to reach student achievement
The definitions of the words policymakers, educators, and student achievement will be provided. There will also be a classification of discourse markers which are used to connect ideas or thoughts. Additionally, some insights of management approaches will be described (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005).
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), policymakers are those professionals who establish a set of rules related to the improvement of the quality of instruction in classrooms. Consequently, the educators are the ones who put into practice the policymakers’ plans and ideas.
What is more, instruction is the process of teaching a particular subject/topic to a particular group of people (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005). It could be positive or negative. It is positive when our pupils acquire what we have expected, and it is negative when our expectations do not match with students’ level of knowledge.
Student achievement refers to what our students are expected to achieve. What our students acquire as a result of instruction. Student achievement is closely related to the quality of instruction. The first is the consequence of the last. The better teachers hold their lessons, the better their students will learn.
In order to connect our thoughts or ideas, it is necessary to use discourse markers. There are many types of these devices. For instance, those which add a point are as well as, and, and in addition (to). There are also discourse markers used for contrast, such as however, nevertheless, even though, though, despite, but, instead of, and or, or for developing a point in addition, moreover, and furthermore.
Besides, whenever we analyze an article or any other piece of writing, we could find discourse markers for explaining reasons, such as as a result, because, because of, and therefore, for expressing a result, and, after all as well as so, or just for starting, first. They are also useful discourses markers used to give examples, as for example and for instance.
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), grounded in management approaches means based on management approaches. The data-based improvement is based on management approaches such as the Total Quality Management. The data-based improvement is the result of the application of management approaches.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the role of teachers (educators) in education, as parts of student achievement. As it is mentioned previously in the text, student achievement is the result of teacher instruction. In addition, professional development also improves the way educators teach.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Providing for Rural Teachers’ Professional Development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
The definitions of the words policymakers, educators, and student achievement will be provided. There will also be a classification of discourse markers which are used to connect ideas or thoughts. Additionally, some insights of management approaches will be described (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005).
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), policymakers are those professionals who establish a set of rules related to the improvement of the quality of instruction in classrooms. Consequently, the educators are the ones who put into practice the policymakers’ plans and ideas.
What is more, instruction is the process of teaching a particular subject/topic to a particular group of people (A. Howley & C. B. Howley, 2005). It could be positive or negative. It is positive when our pupils acquire what we have expected, and it is negative when our expectations do not match with students’ level of knowledge.
Student achievement refers to what our students are expected to achieve. What our students acquire as a result of instruction. Student achievement is closely related to the quality of instruction. The first is the consequence of the last. The better teachers hold their lessons, the better their students will learn.
In order to connect our thoughts or ideas, it is necessary to use discourse markers. There are many types of these devices. For instance, those which add a point are as well as, and, and in addition (to). There are also discourse markers used for contrast, such as however, nevertheless, even though, though, despite, but, instead of, and or, or for developing a point in addition, moreover, and furthermore.
Besides, whenever we analyze an article or any other piece of writing, we could find discourse markers for explaining reasons, such as as a result, because, because of, and therefore, for expressing a result, and, after all as well as so, or just for starting, first. They are also useful discourses markers used to give examples, as for example and for instance.
According to A. Howley and C. B. Howley (2005), grounded in management approaches means based on management approaches. The data-based improvement is based on management approaches such as the Total Quality Management. The data-based improvement is the result of the application of management approaches.
As a conclusion, it is important to emphasize the role of teachers (educators) in education, as parts of student achievement. As it is mentioned previously in the text, student achievement is the result of teacher instruction. In addition, professional development also improves the way educators teach.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Providing for Rural Teachers’ Professional Development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
Discourse community and its basis characteristics
Discourse community and its basis characteristics
The aim of this paper is to describe what Swales (1990) has claimed as a discourse community as well as to find support from other sources. Furthermore, we will be able to read about the six requirements that a discourse community should meet in order to be considered as such.
To begin with, Swales (1990) has stated that a discourse community is a group of people who share common purposes, attitudes, values and who agree in what way they could achieve their shared aims. Swales (1990) has also proposed six requirements that are specific to discourse communities: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology as well as high general level of expertise.
The concept of common goals refers to each group who should have specific commitments and share the same interests. According to Kelly-Kleese (2001), “the community college can be seen as a discourse community: its members have developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships, similar attitudes and values, shared understandings about how to communicate their knowledge and achieve their shared purposes, and a flow of discourse that has a particular structure” (p.1).
The next concept is that of participatory mechanisms which are used in order to provide information and feedback among the members of the community. Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “for teaching learning to occur, teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (p.1). What is more, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have taken into account Vigotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which suggests that reflection would be impossible without the socially guided participation.
In reference to the requirement of information exchange, the members of the group should be intercommunicated so as to survive as a group. According to Kelly-Kleese (2004), “sharing knowledge is more than research and publication” (p.5). In addition to this, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “interactions with the people in one’s environment are major determinants of both what is learned and how learning takes place” (p.1).
Taking into consideration the concept of community-specific genres, the group should have at least one genre/style that connects each one of the members with the rest. Kelly-Kleese (2004) has pointed out that “community colleges have institutional missions that differ from the universities and four-year-colleges because their student bodies are comprised largely of nontraditional and at-risk students” (p.2). Furthermore, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have claimed that “phenomenology is a discourse community that focuses on the individual’s personal experiences, thoughts and feelings” (p.7).
Highly specialized terminology points out that all discourse communities should have their own use of abbreviations and acronyms that gives them identity. Taking into account Kelly-Kleese’s review (2001), “the community college can be seen as adopting language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community, meaning that is less applicable to its own community but is nonetheless consistently used. The use of such language and definitions exemplifies the argument that the communicative competence within academe belongs to the university discourse community” (p.2).
The last concept is high general level of expertise which emphasizes that each community should arrive at a certain level of knowledge. In the article Community College Review, Kelly-Kleese (2004) has proposed that “within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously” (p.3).
In conclusion, not only have we reflected upon the definition of discourse community, but we have also stated the six requirements that should take place within any discourse community. On top of that, we have supported Swales’ notions and found enough evidence in favor of them.
References
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A.J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into practice. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_29/ai_n77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
The aim of this paper is to describe what Swales (1990) has claimed as a discourse community as well as to find support from other sources. Furthermore, we will be able to read about the six requirements that a discourse community should meet in order to be considered as such.
To begin with, Swales (1990) has stated that a discourse community is a group of people who share common purposes, attitudes, values and who agree in what way they could achieve their shared aims. Swales (1990) has also proposed six requirements that are specific to discourse communities: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology as well as high general level of expertise.
The concept of common goals refers to each group who should have specific commitments and share the same interests. According to Kelly-Kleese (2001), “the community college can be seen as a discourse community: its members have developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships, similar attitudes and values, shared understandings about how to communicate their knowledge and achieve their shared purposes, and a flow of discourse that has a particular structure” (p.1).
The next concept is that of participatory mechanisms which are used in order to provide information and feedback among the members of the community. Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “for teaching learning to occur, teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (p.1). What is more, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have taken into account Vigotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which suggests that reflection would be impossible without the socially guided participation.
In reference to the requirement of information exchange, the members of the group should be intercommunicated so as to survive as a group. According to Kelly-Kleese (2004), “sharing knowledge is more than research and publication” (p.5). In addition to this, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) have stated that “interactions with the people in one’s environment are major determinants of both what is learned and how learning takes place” (p.1).
Taking into consideration the concept of community-specific genres, the group should have at least one genre/style that connects each one of the members with the rest. Kelly-Kleese (2004) has pointed out that “community colleges have institutional missions that differ from the universities and four-year-colleges because their student bodies are comprised largely of nontraditional and at-risk students” (p.2). Furthermore, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) have claimed that “phenomenology is a discourse community that focuses on the individual’s personal experiences, thoughts and feelings” (p.7).
Highly specialized terminology points out that all discourse communities should have their own use of abbreviations and acronyms that gives them identity. Taking into account Kelly-Kleese’s review (2001), “the community college can be seen as adopting language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community, meaning that is less applicable to its own community but is nonetheless consistently used. The use of such language and definitions exemplifies the argument that the communicative competence within academe belongs to the university discourse community” (p.2).
The last concept is high general level of expertise which emphasizes that each community should arrive at a certain level of knowledge. In the article Community College Review, Kelly-Kleese (2004) has proposed that “within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously” (p.3).
In conclusion, not only have we reflected upon the definition of discourse community, but we have also stated the six requirements that should take place within any discourse community. On top of that, we have supported Swales’ notions and found enough evidence in favor of them.
References
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A.J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into practice. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_29/ai_n77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
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